A Primer in Enlightenment Philosophy

1. A Primer in Enlightenment Philosophy This presentation describes the key philosophical perspectives of ancient Greek society, the Italian Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the Enlightenment. In simplistic terms, these perspectives are: • Greek Philosophy: Ideal Society • Italian Renaissance: Pragmatic Society • Protestant Reformation: Mass Society • The Enlightenment: Science and Society

2. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Socrates(470 B.C. to 399 B.C.) • Socratic Method • Solve problems by answering • a series of questions aimed at • eliminating incorrect assumptions and ineffective solutions. • This “negative” method underlies the contemporary process of positing and rejecting hypotheses.

3. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Socrates(470 B.C. to 399 B.C.) • Metaphysics • Belief in immortality of the soul. • People should be concerned with • the “welfare of their souls” rather than with material possessions and worldly success. • This idealist perspective strongly influenced Enlightenment philosophy.

4. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Socrates(470 B.C. to 399 B.C.) • Knowledge • True knowledge is that which • is gained beyond the senses. • The invisible world is the most intelligible. Physical events are “shadows” of their real existence. • The material and spiritual are in inherent conflict and are irreconciliable (see: dialectic) .

5. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Socrates(470 B.C. to 399 B.C.) • Allegory of the Cave (as told by Plato) • Lifelong prisoners in a cave see • only the shadows of events in the • real world cast upon the wall of the cave they face. • A prisoner who was released to see the real world would have difficulty convincing the other prisoners of this reality.

6. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Socrates(470 B.C. to 399 B.C.) • Lessons of the Cave Allegory: • Constantly challenge what • we consider to be reality. • Think dialectically (idea, counter-idea, new idea). • Rely upon reasoning over “false” material indications of reality.

7. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Plato(424 B.C. to 328 B.C.) • Knowledge • If knowledge is gained only from • experience, then because the world is in constant flux, this knowledge is mere opinion. • Knowledge gained through abstract reasoning has more lasting appeal. • The importance of abstract theorizing.

8. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Plato (424 B.C. to 328 B.C.) • Social Structure • Society is best ruled by the few. • These “philosopher kings” have • expertise and “love the truth.” • Society must be diversified to include farmers, merchants, craftsmen, etc. • The importance of the elite, even within a democracy.

9. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Aristotle(384 B.C. to 322 B.C.) • The Logic of Science • Synthesis of philosophy and • science. Using induction from • basic elements to discover reality. • Development of logic to understand reality and arrive at sound conclusions.

10. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Aristotle(384 B.C. to 322 B.C.) • Four Types of Causes • Material: Basic elements of the • event or condition. • Formal: Fundamental principles or general laws. • Efficient: The “independent variable” of cause. That which causes something. • Final: The purpose or goal of an event.

11. Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society • Summary • The use of pure reason. • Creation of ideal societies. • Search for absolute truth. • No interest in observations and testing of hypotheses as we describe these processes today. • Plato: “Deduction” from laws. • Aristotle: “Induction” from events.

12. Italian Renaissance: Pragmatism Nicollo Machiavelli(1469-1527) • The Prince • “How to” book for the dictator. • Pragmatic, ruthless, strategic. • Demonstrated the practical, everyday reality of governing a large, complex (authoritarian) society. • Society as it really is.

13. Protestant Reformation: Mass Society Martin Luther(1497-1546) • Social Structure • Power (interpretation of the bible) to the people! • Importance of: • mass education, • critical thinking, and • the active citizen.

14. Protestant Reformation: Mass Society Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679) • Social Structure • Social order is created by • humans. • Therefore, they can change it. • Without government, society would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short!

15. Protestant Reformation: Mass Society Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679) • Society as an organism of interdependent parts, each working for the benefit of the whole. • Importance of observation of the patterns of human behavior.

16. Protestant Reformation: Mass Society Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679) • Three sources of conflict: • Scarce resources, • Distrust of others, and • Desire for self glory. • Everyone needs a certain amount of power to pursue desires and avoid fears. • Thus, humans must find a way to maintain peace and social order.

17. Protestant Reformation: Mass Society Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679) • People will be willing to give up individual liberties to maintain peace. • People need order. • The “social contract” is an agreement to obey the laws. • But, human nature will not allow this to happen! • Thus, the need for authoritarian government.

18. Protestant Reformation: Mass Society Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679) • The Leviathan, or strong central government, will channel passion into effective action. • Government should derive from human beings, not some divine sense of purpose (theocracy) or birthright (aristocracy). • Hobbes was considered to be very liberal.

19. The Enlightenment John Locke(1632-1704) • Well educated, Puritan family. • Became interested in the “new science.” • Emphasized individual rights. • Agreed with Hobbes about the rise of government, but thought that God was the prime factor in politics. • People are born with God-given rights.

20. The Enlightenment John Locke(1632-1704) • People were rewarded based upon their industriousness. • But, people should not accumulate too much money. • Otherwise, society could become a horrible place. • People need a sense of order. • How to achieve order while maximizing individual liberties?

21. The Enlightenment John Locke(1632-1704) • God’s law created a moral imperative that prevented humans from pursuing a free-for-all. • People accepted government out of a sense of convenience and the need for protection. • People give up rights to a protective government.

22. The Enlightenment John Locke(1632-1704) • People came before and created government. • Individual freedom! • Private property! • Individual freedom is the foundation of modern liberal democracy. • Because property was God-given, people should leave enough for all to have some.

23. The Enlightenment John Locke(1632-1704) • The contract society was composed of persons with property. • The “trustee government” protected those with property. • Importance of the separation of church and state. • Let God judge, not zealots!

24. The Enlightenment John Locke(1632-1704) • Thus, God gives us rights and moral imperatives to create a society for the benefit of individuals. • Individuals, however, should not interpret God’s will. • Let the law of the land govern people, under the guidance of God’s moral imperatives.

25. The Enlightenment Jean Rousseau(1712-1778) • Son of an academic elite. • The Social Contract • Nature ordained that all men are equal and that the State is responsible for public order. • People are equal and have the same goals. • No person is above the law. • Limited power of rulers.

26. The Enlightenment Jean Rousseau(1712-1778) • Champion of a democratic society. • The noble savage: Once man became self-conscious, society began to decline. • With human pride comes divorce from nature. • Man must now agree to create laws, equally formed by and binding to all.

27. The Enlightenment • The “Enlightenment” refers to writings in Western Europe and the American Colonies during the Eighteen century. • The central theme was to create the perfect society here on Earth. • Rejection of Aristocracy and Theocracy. • Liberal individualism: meaning critical reasoning and opposition to traditional authority.

28. The Enlightenment • The power of human reason (critical thinking). • The importance of science (observation). • Progress through knowledge. • Explore new ideas, think for yourself, value of education and practical knowledge. • Kant, Hume, Franklin, Jefferson.

29. The Conservative Reaction • The need to maintain order. • The importance of the state. • Louis de Bonald: Return to medieval rule. • Emphasis on: • Society as an organic unity. • Society is superior to individuals. • Individuals are abstractions. • The parts of society are interdependent.

30. The Conservative Reaction • Emphasis on: • Institutions are positive entities. • Institutions are functional. • Small groups are essential. • Preserve religious institutions. • People need ritual, tradition, worship. • Status and hierarchy are essential to society.

31. The Revolutions • Political Revolution • The Age of Reason (Enlightenment). • American Revolution • Individual freedom, democracy. • French Revolution • Fall of the aristocracy. • Fall of anarchy! • Industrial Revolution • Increase in productivity. • Urbanization.

32. The Conservative Reaction Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825) • Born into the aristocracy. • Possible to discover the structure of society and its laws. • Reliance upon natural sciences. • Observation of patterns was essential. • Look for “organic structure” of society. • Create a science of social organization.

33. The Conservative Reaction Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825) • Methodology: • Observe patterns. • Patterns will disclose laws. • Laws can be used to build the good society. • The study of society should be based upon the principles of science (see: Newton).

34. The Conservative Reaction Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825) • Social order through science. • The rule of science as a “religious force.” • Humanistic approach to social order. • Need for order, discipline, and material productivity.

35. The Conservative Reaction Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825) • Society would be controlled by: • Qualified experts. • Persons of position. • The Planned society. • The common people could not grasp the needs of an advanced society. • Everyone must work and be productive.

36. Summary • The need to maintain order versus the rights of the individual. • The power of ideas versus the power of material conditions. • The importance of reason versus (and) the importance of observations. • We can have a science of society. • We can have a planned society.