Introduction to Environment and Natural Resources

1. Introduction to Environment and Natural Resources 27-8-2008

2. Overview • Human Domination of the Earth’s ecosystems • Taking stock - current state of domination • The doomslayers vs. the doomsayers • Julian Simon and Bjorn Lombok, vs Meadows, Ehrlich and others • Our role!

3. Human Domination Vitousek 1997

4. Human Domination • Population growth continues to increase. • 6,7 billion. Combined with GDP growth implies increase in resource consumption

5. Adding another New York city per month

6. Throughput is increasing • GWP has grown 8x since 1950

7. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment • Largest assessment of the health of the world’s ecosystems

8. Overview of Findings • Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time in human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fiber and fuel • The changes that have been made to ecosystems have contributed to substantial net gains in human well-being and economic development, but these gains have been achieved at growing costs in the form of the degradation of many ecosystem services, increased risks of nonlinear changes, and the exacerbation of poverty for some groups of people • The degradation of ecosystem services could grow significantly worse during the first half of this century and is a barrier to achieving the Millennium Development Goals

9. Largest assessment of the health of Earth’s ecosystems • Experts and Review Process • Prepared by 1360 experts from 95 countries • 80-person independent board of review editors • Review comments from 850 experts and governments • Governance • Called for by UN Secretary General in 2000 • Authorized by governments through 4 conventions • Partnership of UN agencies, conventions, business, non-governmental organizations with a multi-stakeholder board of directors

10. Defining Features • Multi-scale assessment • Includes information from 33 sub-global assessments

11. MEA the approach - Ecosystem Services

12. Consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being

13. Human Well-being Indirect Drivers Ecosystem Services Direct Drivers • Indirect Drivers of Change • Demographic • Economic (globalization, trade, market and policy framework) • Sociopolitical (governance and institutional framework) • Science and Technology • Cultural and Religious • Human Well-being and • Poverty Reduction • Basic material for a good life • Health • Good Social Relations • Security • Freedom of choice and action • Direct Drivers of Change • Changes in land use • Species introduction or removal • Technology adaptation and use • External inputs (e.g., irrigation) • Resource consumption • Climate change • Natural physical and biological drivers (e.g., volcanoes)

14. Unprecedented change • More land was converted to cropland in the 30 years after 1950 than in the 150 years between 1700 and 1850 • 20% of the world’s coral reefs were lost and 20% degraded in the last several decades • 35% of mangrove area has been lost in the last several decades • Amount of water in reservoirs quadrupled since 1960 • Withdrawals from rivers and lakes doubled since 1960

15. Finding #1 • Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time in human history • This has resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth

16. Human Domination

17. Unprecedented change in structure and function of ecosystems • More land was converted to cropland in the 30 years after 1950 than in the 150 years between 1700 and 1850. Cultivated Systems in 2000 cover 25% of Earth’s terrestrial surface (Defined as areas where at least 30% of the landscape is in croplands, shifting cultivation, confined livestock production, or freshwater aquaculture)

18. Significant and largely irreversible changes to species diversity • The distribution of species on Earth is becoming more homogenous • Humans have increased the species extinction rate by as much as 1,000 times over background rates typical over the planet’s history (medium certainty) • 10–30% of mammal, bird, and amphibian species are currently threatened with extinction (medium to high certainty)

19. Human Domination - Loss in biotic resources • Coastal wetlands have been severely altered • 50% of mangroves transformed, 35% lost • 20% coral reefs lost

20. The Oceans • 25% of commercially exploited marine fish stocks are overharvested (high certainty) • 44% at the limit of exploitation • 28% already collapsed • Collective collapse within 40 years

21. The Oceans • Serious impact from fishing gear • Implications from discards • Increase in the frequency of algal blooms • Temperature, nutrients, salinity • Changes in the distribution of species • Possibly due to climate change

22. Human Domination

23. Human Domination • Biogeochemical Cycles • Carbon • Nitrogen • Sulfur • Water cycle

24. Carbon/Carbon Cycle • Primary resource for photosynthesis • Anthropogenic emissions from: • Burning fossil fuels • Mining • Land conversion • Industrial processes

25. Carbon Emissions • Carbon Emissions from use of fossil fuels increased since 1950 from 1.63 to 7.57 billion tons of carbon • CO2 Concentration 379.6 parts per million • Increased 20 percent since 1959

26. 2100 Carbon Cycle • Atmospheric concentrations expected to increase drastically

27. Possible consequences of disrupting the carbon cycle • Average Global Temperature in 2006 14.6C, expected to increase from 1-6 degrees C in 100 years • 5 warmest years from 1880 occurred since 1998 • Glaciers melting, profound impact on ecosystems

28. Biogeochemical Cycles • Since 1960: • Flows of biologically available nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems doubled • Flows of phosphorus tripled • > 50% of all the synthetic nitrogen fertilizer ever used has been used since 1985 • 60% of the increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO2 since 1750 has taken place since 1959 Human-produced Reactive Nitrogen Humans produce as much biologically available N as all natural pathways and this may grow a further 65% by 2050

29. Fresh Water • To meet increasing demand: • Altered river systems, 2% of rivers in USA run unimpeded • Withdrawal so extensive in many rivers little water reaches the ocean • Depletion of aquifers (groundwater) • Serious impact from dams • Dilution of waste - transportation

30. Fresh Water • Amount of water in reservoirs quadrupled since 1960 • Withdrawals from rivers and lakes doubled since 1960

31. Impact on rivers from dams Green, not affected Yellow, moderately affected Red, strongly affected

32. A closer look 1Human appropriation of the products of photosynthesis • Vitousek et al. 1986 • Examined the impact on the biosphere by calculating the NPP (Net primary production) that humans have appropriated • Seminal study

33. Human appropriation of the products of photosynthesis • NPP: is the amount of energy left after subtracting the respiration of primary producers from the total amount of energy that is fixed biologically through photosynthesis • Total food resource on the earth

34. Human appropriation of the Products of Photosynthesis Conclusion =>40% of terrestrial NPP, 25% of global NPP

35. A closer look 2Human Appropriation of the products of freshwater • Objective: • Assess how much of the Earth’s renewable freshwater is realistically accessible to humans • Assess how much humans use directly

36. Human Appropriation of the Products of Freshwater • Terrestrial renewable freshwater = Precipitation = Evapotranspiration + Eventual runoff to the sea • Evapotranspiration (EP): Based on how much of NPP we use (use high estimate) => We appropriate 26% of all EP

37. Human Appropriation of the Products of Freshwater • Total runoff (40,700 km3/year): • Not accessible runoff excluded • Accessible (12,500 km3/year) • Withdrawals (we use 35% of all) • Instream uses (we use 19% of all) • Total appropriated 54%

38. Conclusion • Humans appropriate 30% of accessible RFWS • Humans appropriate 23% of all RFWS • Total runoff appropriated 54%

39. The Debate - is this a problem? • The Doomsayers • The environment is going to hell and human life is doomed to only get worse. • Malthus in Principles of Population • Ehrlich and Ehrlich in the Population Bomb • Yes - we are running out of resources, the air is bad,the water worse……

40. The Debate - is this a problem? • The Doomslayers: • Julian Simon and Bjorn Lombok - the claims of the doomsayers are false, based on faulty data • Humans are better off than before • Resources are not running out - people create resources and will simply shift to something new • New technologies will continue to reduce pollution etc. • The world is not coming to an end!

41. Changes to ecosystems have provided substantial benefits • Food production has more than doubled since 1960 • Food production per capita has grown • Food price has fallen

42. Industries based on ecosystem services still the mainstay of many economies • Contributions of agriculture • Agricultural labor force accounts for 22% of the world’s population and half the world’s total labor force • Agriculture accounts for 24% of GDP in low income developing countries • Market value of ecosystem-service industries • Food production: $980 billion per year • Timber industry: $400 billion per year • Marine fisheries: $80 billion per year • Marine aquaculture: $57 billion per year • Recreational hunting and fishing: >$75 billion per year in the United States alone

43. Degradation and unsustainable use of ecosystem services • Approximately 60% (15 out of 24) of the ecosystem services evaluated in the MEA assessment are being degraded or used unsustainably • The degradation of ecosystem services often causes significant harm to human well-being and represents a loss of a natural asset or wealth of a country • Not to mention impact on poverty

44. Capture Fisheries • 25% of commercially exploited marine fish stocks are overharvested (high certainty) Marine fish harvest declining since the late 1980s Trophic level of fish captured is declining in marine and freshwater systems

45. Water • 5 to possibly 25% of global freshwater use exceeds long-term accessible supplies (low to medium certainty) • 15 - 35% of irrigation withdrawals exceed supply rates and are therefore unsustainable (low to medium certainty)

46. Regulating Services • Natural hazard regulation • The capacity of ecosystems to buffer from extreme events has been reduced through loss of wetlands, forests, mangroves • People increasingly occupying regions exposed to extreme events

47. Degradation of ecosystem services often causes significant harm to human well-being • Degradation tends to lead to the loss of non-marketed benefits from ecosystems • The economic value of these benefits is often high and sometimes higher than the marketed benefits Timber and fuelwood generally accounted for less than a third of total economic value of forests in eight Mediterranean countries.

48. The Debate - is this a problem? • Truth somewhere in between • Your role to prevent the doomsayers predictions! – to do so we need to know the extent and nature of the degradation and what is causing the degradation.