AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS: 1810 - PRESENT

1. AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS: 1810 - PRESENT THE VARIOUS TYPES OF MODERN REVOLUTIONS IN THE AMERICAS

2. REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS • Revolution • A popular idea, means to an end • A way to restructure society • Popular sovereignty • Relocating sovereignty in the people • Traditional monarchs • Claimed a "divine right" to rule • Derived from God, unquestionable • Monarch unanswerable to people • Constitutional Limitations • Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king • Glorious Revolution of 1688 • Made the monarch responsible to the people • John Locke's theory of contractual government • Authority comes from the consent of the governed • Freedom and equality • Demands for freedom of worship • Freedom of expression, assembly • Demands for political and legal equality • Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats • Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract • Equality not extended to all • Women, Peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color • Originally only extended to tax paying males with education • Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence

3. TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS • Aristocratic Revolution • Aristocracy fights to preserve privileges • Often against royal absolutism • Rarely for other classes rights • Usually ends with constitution, limits on monarchy • English Glorious Revolution (1688) is an example • Bourgeois (liberal) Revolution • Middle class seeks rights equal to nobility • Extension of franchise, ability to hold office • Issues of taxation often involved • Reforms limited, rarely radical • Franchise limited • American (1776) • French (1789) • Meiji Restoration (1867)

4. MASS REVOLUTIONS • Glorification of the state or a specific class • Radical lower middle, working classes • Mass Mobilization by Leading Elite • All citizens join to achieve end • Often led by revolutionary elite • Uses mass media to function, rule • Desire to remake society radically • Often uses violence as means to end • Types • Right-wing: Nazi, Fascist • Centre: Populists • Left-wing: Communist

5. REFORM • Often system allowed change without radical means, violence • Reform was a theme of 1750 – 1914 • Reform movements • Increased, responsive democratic representation, institutions • Expansion of male suffrage was the key issue • One of the hallmarks of a democratic society • Very successful in US, Western Europe, British settler colonies, Japan • Less so in Latin America, Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, Asia • Abolition of slavery, serfdom • Abolition movement was very successful • Other forms of coercive labor replaced them • Racial, social equality did not follow • Women Rights • One goal was full female franchise • Not achieved until after 1914 but progress • Foreign Reform Movements • India Civil Service Act • China Self-Strengthening • Tanzimat (Turkey) • Meiji Reforms (Japan)

6. 20th CENTURY DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION • Mass Revolution against oppressive state • Largely Peaceful • Mobilizes all classes • Often religious influence • Opposition often uses violence, terror • Began in India (Gandhi’s non-violence) • Political philosophy largely democratic • Often not vengeful (no Reign of Terror)

7. HISTORICAL LATIN REVOLUTIONS • Aristocratic, Bourgeois • Latin American Independence Movements • Brazil, 1822 • Mass • Nationalist • Haitian, 1800 • Socialist • Mexico, 1910 • Cuba, 1950s • Nicaragua, 1979 • Populist • Argentina, 1940s • Brazil, 1940s • Venezuela, 1990s • Democratic • Argentina, 1980s • Chile, 1990s • Mexico, 1990s

8. THE AMERICAN WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE:DOES IT FIT THE MODEL OF A BOURGEOIS REVOLUTION?

9. A CRISIS BUILDS: BRITISH ALIENATE AMERICAN COLONIALS • French and Indian Wars • Proclamation of 1763 • Stamp Act; Intolerable Acts • The Quebec Act of 1774 • Mercantilism vs. Free Trade • No taxation without representation • Enlightenment ideas • Sons of Liberty

10. BRITISH SEEK TO MAINTAIN THE STATUS QUO • Period lasts from Boston Massacre (1770) through meeting of Continental Congress in Philadelphia and Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775) • New Englanders especially merchants and citizens around Boston are “radicals” • Most of mid-Atlantic states and citizens are moderates/conciliatory. • British colonial bureaucracy and landed aristocracy in the South are conservatives; seek to avert clash by working with Parliament. • British government unwilling to compromise.

11. COOLER HEADS SEEK TO COMPROMISE • From 1775 to the Declaration of Independence, 1776 through the Battle of Saratoga, 1777; • Colonial moderates attempt to initiate changes, compromise, bargain with the British, Parliament • Many colonists, especially in the southern colonies were skeptical about the wisdom or potential of success for the revolution. • American success at Saratoga, British actions emboldens patriots; war spreads.

12. COMPLETE INDEPENDENCE BECOMES COLONIAL GOAL • France enters the war (1778) until the end Battle of Yorktown (1783) • Moderate colonials struggling against the more radical elements within the revolutionaries. • British move south into Middle Atlantic and later Deep South; commit many atrocities • War spreads as other Europeans attack UK.

13. PATRIOTS WIN! • Look upon Articles of Confederation as moderate constitution, with which some were not happy. Radicals are represented by people such as Thomas Paine, Sons of Liberty and to a lesser extent Thomas Jefferson. Even federalist ideas are radical. • The radical victories are the Battle of Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris, breaking all ties with England.

14. AMERICAN REIGN OF TERROR • The radical reign of terror was the expulsion of the Loyalists to Canada, and the confiscation of their property. • Americans war on pro-British Indians and open western lands to settlement. Begin resettlement of Indians. • Proportionally to French émigrés, who fled/were guillotined, loyalist expulsions and resettlements were greater.

15. AMERICAN MODERATES PREDOMINATE • The period from 1781-1789 • “United States” governed by Articles of Confederation. • States re-establish many precolonial social, economic patterns. • Ruling elites based on landed, property wealth, not nobility • Episcopalians predominate (old Church of England) • Many states openly trade with British • Radical ideas unpopular

16. STRONG INSTITUTIONS STABILIZE REVOLUTION • Calling of the Constitution Convention in 1787 was reaction to weaknesses in Articles of Confederation. Many people upset by moderate restoration because it was not working. US Constitution was coup d’etat. • Rise of federalist idea with strong central government instead of a confederation is the consolidation of a “strong leader” • George Washington as a national military leader, who can calm rebellions and unite the people, are the synthesis period of the revolution represented in one man.

17. THE FIRST LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS • What model does each revolution fit?

18. HAITIAN REVOLUTION • Saint-Domingue • Rich French colony on western Hispaniola • Society dominated by small white planter class • 90 percent of population were slaves • Horrendous working conditions • Large communities of escaped slaves (maroons) • Ideas of Enlightenment reached educated blacks • Free blacks fought in American war • Widespread discontent • White settlers sought self-governance • Gens de couleur sought political rights • Slaves wanted freedom • Slave revolt began in 1791 • Factions of white settlers, gens de couleur, slaves battled each other • French troops arrived in 1792; British, Spanish intervened in 1793 • Slaves conquer whole island including Spanish part • Whites driven into exile, executed • Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803) • Son of slaves, literate, son of Enlightenment • Skilled organizer, built strong, disciplined army • Controlled most of Saint-Domingue by 1797 • Created a constitution in 1801 • Arrested by French troops; died in jail, 1803 • Haiti • Yellow fever ravaged French troops; defeated, driven out by slave armies • Declared independence in 1803; republic established in 1804 • Civil War followed until 1810; kingdom to 1820 • Dominican Republic independent in 1844

19. INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA • Latin American society rigidly hierarchical • Social classes: peninsulares, creoles, mestizos, slaves, indigenous peoples • Creoles sought to displace the peninsulares but retain their privileged position • Mestizos form the largest part of population, wanted rights • Mexican independence • Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1807 weakened royal control of colonies • 1810: peasant revolt in Mexico led by Hidalgo, defeated by conservative creoles • 1821: Mexico briefly a military dictatorship, then in 1822 a republic • Southern Viceroyalty of New Spain split into several independent states in 1830s • Simon Bolivar to 1822 • Led independence movement in South America • Inspired by George Washington, took arms against Spanish rule in 1811 • Creole forces overcame Spanish armies throughout South America, 1824 • Bolivar's effort of creating the Gran Colombia failed in 1830s • Jose de San Martin to 1825 • Led independence movements in Bolivia, Argentina, Chile • United efforts with Bolivar • Brazilian independence • Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro, 1807 • Brazil declared a separate kingdom during exilel • The king's son, Pedro, agreed to Brazilian independence, 1821 • Became Emperor Pedro I in the independent Brazil (reigned 1822-1834) • Creole dominance in Latin America • Independence brought little social change in Latin America • Principal beneficiaries were creole elites • Creole elite merged with peninsulares to rule Latin America • Mestizos acquired some benefits, Indians/blacks marginalized • Caribbean remained largely under European control

20. THE NEW AMERICAN MAP

21. LATIN AMERICA • Old Problems confront new realities • Leaders came from Enlightenment: spoke of equality, freedom • No allowance freedom of religion • Slavery ended but not exploitation of poor, Indians • Equality was too threatening to elite • Democracy uncommon, rich men voted • Old color distinctions did not disappear rapidly, easily, or at all • Political fragmentation • Political instability after independence • Creole leaders ruled but had little experience with self-government • White minority dominated politics • Peasant majority was without power • Political instability aggravated by division among elites • Constant argument between centralizing and federalizing pressures • Conflicts between farmers, ranchers, indigenous peoples common • Intense fighting in Argentina, Chile; modern weapons against native peoples • Colonists had pacified most productive land by 1870s • Caudillos, Caudillism, Politics and the Church • Military leaders who held power after revolutionary era • Used military to seize power, stay in control; interested only in power for own sake • Opposed liberalizing effects; often made alliances with aristocratic elites, land owners • Ruled through the church and opposed an secularization, reform of society • Mexico: war and reform from 1821-1911 • Shifted from monarchy to republic to caudillo rule • La Reforma: liberal movement in 1850s led by President Benito Juarez • Granted universal male suffrage; limited power of priests and military • Reforms strongly opposed by landowning elites

22. MEXICAN REVOLUTION WAS IT BOURGEOIS OR AN EXAMPLE OF A MASS 20TH REVOLUTION?

23. DIAZ LOSES CONTROL • Porfirio Diaz’s Dictatorship • President for life • Centralized bureaucracy • Conciliatory towards church • Appropriated Indian communal lands • Favored large landowners • Impoverished peasants, debt peonage • Limited participation by small middle class • Many rebellions by peasants, Indians • Encouraged foreign investment • Development of wealth for export • Resources owned by foreigners

24. DIAZ SEEKS TO MAINTAIN THE STATUS QUO • Many Opponents to Rule • Parties organized to oppose Diaz • Workers protest labor conditions • Madero runs for presidency • Diaz negates election • Imprisons Madero • Opposes changes • Reaffirms status quo

25. EARLY REVOLUTION • 1907 Economic Depression • 1910 Revolt • Country run by elites • Corrupt government • Weakened military • Prosperity benefits small middle class • Modern economy but few own most • Impoverished countryside, revolts • Discontent among elite, middle class • Massive social revolution • Madero revolt overthrews Diaz

26. REACTION TO MODERATES • Liberal Madero as president, 1910 – 1913 • Opposes land reform • Political reforms antagonize military, US • Zapata’s Plan de Ayala • All land, waters, woods back to the hacendados • In regions he controls, returns lands • 1913 Military Rebellion • Attacks National Palace • Military with US support arrests • Madero murdered • Installs Huerta as president

27. RADICAL REACTION • Revolutionary Forces unite • Zapata, Villa, Carranza, Obregon • Revolt against Huerta • 1914: Vera Cruz Incident • Mexicans arrest US sailors • US bombards Veracruz • Huerta resigns after election due to US pressure • Constitutionalist army takes Mexico City • Carranza becomes president • Zapata, Villa depose president • Institute a radical system of changes

28. MEXICAN CIVIL WAR • 1915 Civil War as Reign of Terror • Country divided into warring provinces • Competing policies • Murders, assassinations, brutality • Constitutionalists under Carranza • Army seizes Mexico City • Constitutionalists occupy Yucatan • Ends debt peonage • Mobilized workers, peasants for revolution • Villa defeated by Constitutionalist Army • Villa raids US after US supports Carranza

29. MODERATES PREDOMINATE • End of War as Moderate victory • 1917 Constitution • Advanced nationalist, radical views • Universal male suffrage (hostile to women) • Power, property of Church restricted • Free, secular, obligatory primary education • Returned lands seized illegally • Curbed foreign ownership • 8 hour work day • Minimum wage • Strikes legal

30. STABILIZED REVOLUTION • Carranza elected president • Swung revolution to far-right • Nationalist favoring elite ideologies • Opposed education • Opposed land reform • Suppressed workers’ unions, revolts • 1919 – 1924 • Zapata captured, killed • New leaders oppose Carranza • Generals stage coup, kill Carranza • Frequent revolts, assassinations • Rise of Calles as strong man • Ruled Mexico directly, indirectly for a decade • Ruled through military, provincial allies • He picked presidential candidates • Put down Catholic revolt (Cristeros) • Nationalized Church property • Institutes some reforms

31. 20th CENTURY MASS REVOLUTIONS • Where these revolutions examples of mass, nationalist revolutions or Communist revolutions?

32. ANTECEDENTS • The Foreign Factor • Europeans, Americans heavily invested in Americas • Foreigners controlled much of the investments, developments • US, UK were the two biggest sources of export capital • Marxism in Latin America • Traditionally arises in an urban, industrialized society • 19th Century Latin America • Did not industrialized until 20th century • Did not strongly urbanize until the 20th century • Industrialization and the Working Classes • Export industries led to rise of working class • Commercial export farming increasingly mechanized • Mexico under Diaz was first to really change • World Wars I and II saw rise of modern industries, working classes • Local Societies • Local elites controlled countries’ political structures • Military repression used to maintain control • Existing governments failed to reform • Working class, urban poor, peasants, farmers marginalized

33. POPULISM • Defined • Political doctrine that aims to defend the interests of the common people against an entrenched, self-serving or corrupt elite. • The two types are agrarian and political populism • Opposed to • Corporations • Foreign control of country’s economy • Corruption • Traditional elites including the church • Support • Poor people of the country • Support often regional • Support limited to one class • Tactics • Anti-regime • Sometimes turns right-wing • Sometimes becomes nationalistic • Often led by a charismatic leader • Support massive industrialization, land reform • Tend to tax wealth, nationalize industries, and borrow heavily

34. EXAMPLES OF POPULISM • Paraguay’s • De Francia, 1820s – 1840s • Mexico’s • Cardenas, 1930s – 1940s • Brazil’s • Vargas 1930s to 1960s • Argentina’s • Peron 1940s – 1950s • Guatemala’s • Albeniz, 1954 • Venezuela’s • Hugo Chavez 1990s – Present • Mexico’s • Obrador, 2006

35. CUBA • Cuba 1898 to 1959 • Independent but clearly under US control • Platt Amendment makes it a US Protectorate • Run by Cuba landed, propertied elites • US monitors constantly • US base in Guantanamo • Bautista • American supported dictator • Reform failed • Wealth concentrated in a few hands • Majority of population young, rural, poor • 40% of population African descent and marginalized • Fidel Castro • Leads guerrilla movement in the Sierra Madre Mountains • Eventually wins civil war and enters Havana in 1959 • Leads • Cancels promised elections • Expropriates foreign properties • Kills or exiles political enemies • US imposes trade embargo • Soviets step in with massive aid, gain foothold off US shores

36. CUBA & THE COMMUNISTS • Castro and USSR • Declares allegiance to Soviet foreign policy, 1960 • Russian advisors arrive • Troops arm, train Cuban armed forces • Bay of Pigs • CIA works to topple Castro’s regime • CIA send 1,500 Cubans into Bay of Pigs • Hopes to spur revolution • American Air support does not appear • Force destroyed in 3 days • US embarrassment • Castro begins to align economy, society with USSR

37. CUBA & THE WORLD • Cuban Missile Crisis • October 1962 • Soviets assemble missiles in Cuba • Missles can reach US • Kennedy publicly challenges USSR • Imposes naval blockade around Cuba • Quarantines Cuba • Soviets concede • US guarantees non-interference • Cuba outside of Cuba • Supports revolutionary movements in Africa • Supports revolutionary movements in Latin America

38. NICARAGUAN REVOLUTION • Civil war in Nicaragua, 1920s • US supports Anastacio Somoza Garcia (1896-1956) • Augusto César Sandino leads opposition to US • Somoza assassinates Sandino in 1934 • Maintains good relations with US • Rules country as US puppet, caudillo • Owns all means of production • 1970s • Sandinista Guerrilla movement • Influenced by Castro, communism • Wins newest civil war and established Sandinista rule • Marxist Nicaragua 1980s • USA supports Contras, anti-communist forces • Country supports land reform but not totalitarian

39. DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTIONS • Military Rule vs. Constitutional Rule • Latin America tended to rely on military rule • Often anti-communist, anti-reform, pro-Church • Strongly supported by USA, American businesses • 1980s • Democratic movements strong, active • Middle class increasingly involved • Poorer elements radicalize • Active opposition to dictators in Chile, Argentina • Opposition to Church • Liberation Theology, Pentecostals • Opposition to the US • Peru, Guatemala, Venezuela, Ecuador • Victories • Free elections in Mexico • Peaceful revolutions oust dictators in Chile, Argentina • Today Democratic regimes strong in region • Democracy not always pro-US, but often pro-business, reform

40. OTHER REVOLUTIONS • Application and Evaluation Level • Does the Industrial Revolution conform to the model? If so, how? • Should the Industrial Revolution be studied with political revolutions? • What other 19th and 20th century revolutions should we include in our study? • Synthesis Level • Create eight slides based on this format on one of the revolutions in your packet.

41. ELECTRONIC LINKS • Internet History Sourcebooks Project • http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ • Latin American Revolutions • http://www.uoregon.edu/~caguirre/revol.html