Unit 3: Periodic Table and Electrons in the Atom

1. Unit 3: Periodic Table and Electrons in the Atom (C.5) (A) explain the use of chemical and physical properties in the historical development of the Periodic Table; (C.5)(B) use the Periodic Table to identify and explain the properties of chemical families, including alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, noble gases, and transition metals; and (C.6)(E) express the arrangement of electrons in atoms through electron configurations and Lewis valence electron dot structures.

2. Table of Contents • History of the Periodic Table 3 - 13 • Periodic Families and properties 14 – 23 • Energy and Electromagnetic 24 – 36 Spectrum • Valence Electrons 37 - 53 and Electron Configurations • Lewis electron-dot diagram 54 - 58

3. Formation of the Periodic Table of Elements The History of the Modern Periodic Table

4. During the nineteenth century, chemists began to categorize the elements according to similarities in their physical and chemical properties. The end result of these studies was our modern periodic table.

5. John Newlands In 1863, he suggested that elements be arranged in “octaves” because he noticed (after arranging the elements in order of increasing atomic mass) that certain properties repeated every 8th element. Law of Octaves

6. Dmitri Mendeleev“Father of the Periodic Table” • Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907), a Russian chemist, created the first published periodic table in 1869. • Mendeleev noticed patterns in the properties of the elements [63 then-known], and ingeniously was the first to organize the elements not just according to their physical and chemical properties…but also by increasing atomic mass

7. Background on Mendeleev • Mendeleev was born in Siberia in 1834, the seventeenth child in a very large family. • He moved to Saint Petersburg to study medicine, but he was not accepted and instead became a chemistry professor. • It is said that he went to sleep one night and dreamt of a table where the elements were organized by similar properties.

8. Mendeleev Arrangement Unlike the scientist before, Mendeleev pieced the table together based on several specific elemental properties: • Atomic mass: Mendeleev placed elements with increasing atomic mass across a row from left to right and down a column • Reactivity: Property that describes how easily an element will combine with other substances to form a new compound • Formula of Compounds: Mendeleev paid attention to which elements combined with which, and the ratios in which their atoms combine

9. Mendeleev's Table Increasing atomic mass Increasing atomic mass

10. Predictive Value • Mendeleev was so exact with his organization of the elements that his table demonstrated predictive value. • Using his periodic table, Mendeleev was able to corrected the atomic masses of Be, In, and U and accurately predict the discovery of Sc, Ga, and Ge. • After the discovery of the unknown elements between 1874 and 1885, and the fact that Mendeleev’s predictions for Sc, Ga, and Ge were amazingly close to the actual values, his table was generally accepted.

11. Henry Moseley • Modified in 1913 by Henry Moseley (1887-1915) into the modern Periodic Table – Arranged in rows (periods) of increasing Atomic Number – that is, increasing number of protons – Arranged in columns (groups or families) by repetition of physical and chemical properties

12. Glenn Seaborg • In 1944, he identified the Lanthanide and Actinide Series while working on the Manhattan Project during World War II. • Seaborg is credited with the discovery of 8 new elements.

13. Modern Periodic Table Now Through the laborious work of these and many more scientists the periodic table was created and a scientific masterpiece was born!

14. Geography is Everything Periodic Families

15. Groups and Periods Groups vertical columns containing elements with similar properties. Groups are also called families due to their similar physical and chemical properties. For this course, the groups are numbered 1-18 with Group 1 being on the far left and Group 18 being on the far right of the periodic table. Periods horizontal rows in order of atomic number; each period represents a finite grouping of elements Currently, there are 7 periods

16. 3 Types of Elements Metals • good conductors of heat and electricity • Malleability → hammered or rolled, bendable • Ductile → can be pulled into wire • Luster → shiny when polished Nonmetals • Brittle → not malleable or ductile • Poor conductor of heat and electricity Metalloids • brittle solids • have some properties of metals and nonmetals • semiconductors of electricity

17. Location of Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids

18. Group 1: Alkali Metals • Elements contained: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr • have 1 electron in the outside shell • extremely reactive, reacts with water, air, and • nonmetals • silvery • soft, can be cut with a knife • they are not found as pure elements in nature

19. Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals • Elements include: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra • Second most reactive group of metals • Have 2 electrons in the outside shell • Harder, denser and stronger than alkalis • They are not found as pure elements in nature

20. Group 3-12: Transition Metals • many of the most commonly recognized metals are in these groups • good conductors of electricity • tend to have a high luster • typically less reactive than alkali and alkaline earth elements • many are found in pure form • some are the most dense of all elements

21. Group 17: Halogens • Contain elements: F, Cl, Br, I, At • 7 electrons in outer shell • most reactive nonmetals • react with most metals to form compounds called salts • fluorine and chlorine are gases

22. Group 18: Noble Gases • Includes elements: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn • Inert gases that do not react with anything, found as individual atoms • Have 8 electrons in the outer shell (stable configuration) • Neon, Argon, Krypton, and Xenon are all used for different types of lighting • Radon is radioactive • A few noble gas compounds have been formed under extreme conditions

23. Geography is Everything! Element placement in the periodic table is key and is not by accident! Elements belonging to certain families have similar physical and chemical properties! So in periodic table, you really are who you group with!

24. Energy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum Energy and Light

25. Energy and Light Classical View Of the Universe The Nature of Light – Wave Nature • Matter has to have mass and volume • Energy is not composed of particles. • Energy can only travel in waves. • Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. • Electromagnetic radiation is made of waves called photons; traveling at “c” • Electromagnetic radiation moves through space like waves move across the surface of a pond

26. Electromagnetic Waves • Every wave has four characteristics that determine its properties: • wave speed, v • height (amplitude), • length, λ • number of wave peaks that pass in 1 second, ƒ • All electromagnetic waves move through space at the same, constant speed. • 3.00 x 108 meters per second in a vacuum = The speed of light, c. Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

27. Characterizing Waves • The amplitude is the height of the wave. • The distance from node to crest. • The amplitude is a measure of how intense the light is—the larger the amplitude, the brighter the light. • The wavelength (l) is a measure of the distance covered by the wave. • The distance from one crest to the next. • Or the distance from one trough to the next, or the distance between alternate nodes. • It is actually one full cycle, 2π • Usually measured in nanometers. • 1 nm = 1 x 10-9 m Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

28. Characterizing Waves • The frequency (n) is the number of waves that pass a point in a given period of time. • The number of waves = number of cycles. • Units are hertz (Hz), or cycles/s = s-1. • 1 Hz = 1 s-1 • The total energy is proportional to the amplitude and frequency of the waves. • The larger the wave amplitude, the more force it has. • The more frequently the waves strike, the more total force there is. Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

29. l l l amplitude amplitude

30. C, frequency and wavelength • Wave speed, frequency and wavelength have mathematical relationship. • Using c = λ x ƒ, frequency or wavelength can be found. • Example what is the wavelength of a wave of light if it has a frequency of 3.2 x 1014 hertz? • 3.00 x 108 m/s = λ x 3.2 x 1014 s-1 solve for λ. • λ = 3.00 x 108 m/s = 1.5 x 10-5 m 3.2 x 1014 s-1

31. Light Particles and Planck’s Constant Particles of Light Planck’s Constant • Scientists in the early 20th century showed that electromagnetic radiation was composed of particles we call photons. • Max Planck and Albert Einstein. • Photons are particles of light energy. • One wavelength of light has photons with that amount of energy. • Planck’s Constant is a physical constant reflecting the sizes of energy quanta (photons) in quantum mechanics. • It is named after Max Planck, one of the founders of quantum theory, who discovered it in 1900. • The equation is E = hfwhere E = energy, h = Planck's constant (6.63 x 10-34 J · s), and f = frequency.

32. Using Planck’s equation, E = h x ƒ Example 1: Solving for E using Planck’s Constant Example 2: Solving for energy using wavelength and Planck’s Constant • What is the energy (Joules) of Violet light with a frequency = 7.50 x 1014 s-1? • h =6.63 x 10- 34J · s we then plug in our frequency into our formula and we get • E = 6.63 x 10-34J · s x 7.50 x 1014 s-1 = • 4.97 x10-19 J • Find the energy of light, wavelength is 4.06 x 10-11m. • We first need to plug in the frequency-wavelength relationship soƒ = c / λ. • We then plug it into the energy equation, E = h x ( c / λ ) then we plug in all our numerical values. • E = 6.63 x 10-34J · s x (3.00 x 108m/s /4.06 x 1014m) • E = 4.90 x 10-40 J

33. The Electromagnetic Spectrum • The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation . • The color of the light is determined by its wavelength. • The electromagnetic spectrum extends from low frequencies used for modern radio communication to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength (high-frequency) end.

34. Electromagnetic Spectrum Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

35. The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Photon Energy • Short wavelength light have photons with highest energy = High frequency • Radio wave photons have the lowest energy. • Gamma ray photons have the highest energy. • High-energy electromagnetic radiation can potentially damage biological molecules. • Ionizing radiation • The waves fit between atom-atom bonds, and vibrate/shake the atoms loose Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

36. Order the Following Types of Electromagnetic Radiation:Microwaves, Gamma Rays, Green Light, Red Light, Ultraviolet Light, Continued • By wavelength (short to long). Gamma < UV < green < red < microwaves. • By frequency (low to high). Microwaves < red < green < UV < gamma. • By energy (least to most). Microwaves < red < green < UV < gamma. Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 9

37. Valence Electrons and Electron Configurations

38. Valence Electrons • Valence electrons are electrons found on the outer energy shell of an atom • Electrons available to be lost, gained, or shared in the formation of chemical compounds. • Found in the highest energy level. Valence electrons

39. Valence Electrons • Elements in the same group (family) have the same number of valence electrons

40. Electron Configuration • Energy shells are divided into sub-shells as shown in the research of Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg • The sub-shells are labeled as the s, p, d, and f sub-shells. • The each hold a certain number of orbitals • Each orbital can hold 2 electrons • Electron configuration: A shorthand way to keep track of all the electrons in an atom of an element for all the sub-shells that have electrons. The number of electrons in each sub-shell is shown as a superscript.

41. Electron Configuration • Electron Shells (n= 1, 2, 3, 4…) • The letter n represents the main shell or energy level. • The maximum numbers of electrons that can occupy the main shells • The electron shells in the shell model of an atom (except for n =1) are divided into sub-shells.

42. Electron Configuration • Electron Sub-Shells (s, p, d, and f) • Each sub-shell is indicated by its main shell number and a letter, either s, p, d, or f. • The number of sub-shells in each shell is the same as the shell number. • The maximum numbers of electrons that can occupy s, p, d, and f sub-shells are 2, 6, 10, and 14, respectively

43. Electron Configuration • Sub-shells can be seen by the separation on the periodic table. • Helium is part of the s sub-shell.

44. Electron Configuration • In an electron configuration, • the number indicates the shell number • the letter indicates the sub-shell within the shell • the superscript indicates the number of electrons in the sub-shell. • The superscript numbers sum to the total number of electrons for an atom of the element • Example: carbon has six electrons and its electron configuration is 1s22s22p2 • 2 +2 +2 =6 total electrons

45. Electron Configuration and the periodic table • The periodic table can be used to find the electron configuration for an element • First find the element on the periodic table • Then follow through each element block in order by stating the energy level, the orbital type, and the number of electrons per orbital type until you arrive at the element.

46. Guided Practice • Find the electron configuration for selenium, Se. • Selenium is in the 4th energy shell, in the p sub-shell, and in the fourth column of the p sub-shell so its electron configuration should end in 4p4. • Just follow the fill order to write the electron configuration. • 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4 • Add up all the superscripts to check if the number equals selenium’s atomic number • 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 +2 +10 + 4 = 34 Se atomic # = 34

47. Practice • Write the following elements electron configurations. • Li, Lithium • K, Potassium • Kr, Krypton • Pb, Lead

48. Practice • Answers • Li, Lithium • 1s22s1 • K, Potassium • 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 • Kr, Krypton • 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 • Pb, Lead • 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p2

49. Noble Gas configuration • To write a noble gas (shorthand) configuration for any element, count backwards from that element until you reach a noble gas. • Write that element (noble gas) in brackets. • Then, continue forward with next sub-shell(s) - see the following version of the periodic chart that shows the sub-shell order with respect to the elements.

50. Noble Gas configuration Noble Gases