Second Edition

1. Research Methods for Business Students Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill Second Edition Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Methods for Business Students Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.

2. Chapter Eight Research Methods for Business Students

3. Key Topics • To understand the role that observation may play as a data collection method in your research design. • To identify two types of observation, participant observation and structured observation, and their differing origins and applications. • To adopt particular approaches to data collection and analysis for both participant observation and structured observation. • To identify threats to validity and reliability faced by the two types of observation.

4. Wish to research The research Process Formulate and clarify your Research topic Critically review the literature Choose your research approach and strategy Negotiate access and address ethical issues Plan your data collection and collect the data using one or more of : Sampling Secondary data Observation Semi-structured and in-depth interviews Questionnaires Analyse your data using one or both of: Quantitative methods Qualitative methods Write your project report Submit your report

5. 8.1 Introduction • Observation involves: The systematic observation, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of people’s behavior. 1. Participant Observations: It is qualitative and derives from the work of social anthropology earlier in the 20th century. Its emphasis is on discovering the meanings that people attach to their actions. 2. Structured Observations: It is quantitative and is more concerned with the frequency of those actions.

6. 8.2 Participant observation: an introduction • What is participant observation? • The researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and activities of subjects and thus becomes a member of their group, organization or community. This enables the researcher to share their experiences by not merely observing what is happening but also feeling it. • It has been used extensively in these disciplines to attempt to get to the root of “what is going on” in a wide range of social settings.

7. 8.2 Participant observation: an introduction • Situations in which participant observation has been used. • Adopting the participant observer role as an existing member of an organization does present opportunities to you. • However, it also has its dangers.

8. 8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles • Complete participant • Complete observer • Observer as participant • Participant as observer See figure 8.1 in page 224

9. 8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles • Complete participant: The complete participant role sees you as the researcher attempting to become a member of the group in which you are performing research. • You do NOT reveal your true purpose to the group members. It is close to SPYING. • You may be able to justify this role on pure research grounds in the light of your research questions and objective. • Example: Why do employees smoke during the work breaks?

10. 8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles • Complete observer: You would not reveal the purpose of your activity to those you were observing. • However, unlike the complete participant role, you do not take part in the activities of the group. • Example: Why do consumers choose a certain cashier?

11. 8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles • Observer as participant: You might adopt the role of observer as participant in an outward-bound course to assist team building if you were attending to observe without taking part in the activities in the same way as the “real” candidates. • In other words, you would be a “spectator.” (watcher) • However, your identity as a researcher would be clear to all concerned. They would know your purpose. • Example: Searching the impact of a training course, designed by HR Dept, on the performance of employees.

12. 8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles • Participant as observer: In the role of participant as observer you reveal your purpose as a researcher. • Both you and the subjects are aware of the fact that it is a field work relationship. You are particularly interested to gain the trust of the group. • Example: Searching the impact of salespersons’ characters on convincing the customers to buy a certain product.

13. 8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles • Factors that will determine the choice of participant observer role: • The purpose of your research • The time you have to devote to your research • The degree to which you fell suited to participant observation • Organizational access • Ethical considerations

14. 8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis • Primary observations are those where you would note what happened or what was said at the time. (Unprocessed Observation) • Secondary observations are statements by observers of what happened or was said. This is necessarily involves those observer’s interpretation. (Processed Observation) • Experiential data are those data on your perceptions and feelings as you experience the process you are researching.

15. 8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis • Data collection • The data that you collect depend on your research question and objectives which have given a particular focus to your observation. • How you record your data will depend to a great extent on the role you play as the participant observer.

16. 8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis • Data analysis • In participant observation research, your data collection and analysis activity may be part of the same process. • You will be carrying out analysis and collection of data simultaneously.

17. 8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis • Threats to reliability and validity • The greatest threat to the reliability of you research conclusions produces as a result of a participant observation study is that of observer’s bias.

18. 8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis • Advantages of participant observation: • It is good at explaining “what is going on” in particular social situations. • It heightens the researcher’s awareness of significant social processes. • It is particularly useful for researchers working within their own organizations. • Some participant observation affords the opportunity for the researcher to experience “for real” the emotions of those who are being researched. • Virtually all data collected are useful.

19. 8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis • Disadvantages of participant observation: • It can be very time consuming. • It can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for the researcher. • There can be high levels of role conflict for the researcher. • The closeness of the researcher to the situation being observed can lead to significant observer bias. • Te participant observer role is a very demanding one, to which not all researchers will be suited. • Access to organizations may be difficult. • Data recording is often very difficult for the researcher.

20. 8.5 Structured observation: an introduction • Structured observation is systematic and has a high level of predetermined structure. If you use this method in your data collection strategy you will be adopting a more detached stance. • Structured observation may form only a part of your data collection approach because its faction is to tell you how often things happen rather than why they happen.

21. 8.5 Structured observation: an introduction • Situations in which structured observation may be used. • Time-and-motion study.

22. 8.5 Structured observation: an introduction • Advantages of structured observation: • It can be used by anyone after suitable training in the use of the measuring instrument. • It should yield highly reliable results by virtue of its repelicability. • Structured observation is capable of more than simply observing the frequency of events. • The method allows the collection of data at the time they occur in their natural setting. • Structured observation secures information that most participant would ignore because to them it was too mundane or irrelevant.

23. 8.5 Structured observation: an introduction • Disadvantages of structured observation: • The observer must be in the research setting when the phenomena under study are taking place. • Research results are limited to overt (obvious) action or surface indicators from which the observer must make inferences. • Data are slow and expensive to collect.

24. 8.6 Structured observation: data collection and analysis • Using coding schedules to collect data • Checklist of questions to ask when choosing an “off-the-shelf” coding schedule •see box 8.1 in page 234 • You may decide that no “off-the-shelf” coding schedule is suitable for your purposes. • An alternative to the use of an “off-the-shelf” coding schedule or the development of your own may be a combination of the two.

25. Table 8.1 Checklist of q’s to ask when choosing an “off the shelf” coding schedule • For what purpose was the coding schedule developed? Is it consistent with your research question(s) and objectives? (It should be.) • Is there overlap between the behaviours to be observed? (There should not be.) • Are all behaviours in which you are interested covered by the schedule? (They should be.)

26. Table 8.1 Checklist of q’s to ask when choosing an “off the shelf” coding schedule • Are the behaviours sufficiently clearly specified so that all observers will place behaviours in the same category? (They should be.) • Is any observer interpretation necessary? (It should not be.) • Are codes to be used indicated on the recording form to avoid the necessity for memorisation by the observer? (They should be.)

27. Table 8.1 Checklist of q’s to ask when choosing an “off the shelf” coding schedule • Will the behaviours to be observed be relevant to the inferences you make. (They should be.) • Have all sources of observer’s bias been eliminated? (They should have been.)

28. Table 8.2 Guidelines for developing your own coding schedule Attribute Comment Focused Do not observe and record all that is going on. Only concern yourself with what is strictly relevant.

29. Table 8.2 Guidelines for developing your own coding schedule Attribute Comment Unambiguous Therefore requiring the absolute minimum of observer interpretation

30. Table 8.2 Guidelines for developing your own coding schedule Attribute Comment Non-context The observer’s job is more difficult dependent if the coding of behaviours is dependent on the context in which the behaviour occurs. It may be essential for your research question(s) and objectives to record contextual data, but this should be kept to a minimum.

31. Table 8.2 Guidelines for developing your own coding schedule Attribute Comment Explicitly defined Provide examples for the observer (even if this is you) of behaviours which fall into each category and those that do not.

32. Table 8.2 Guidelines for developing your own coding schedule Attribute Comment Exhaustive Ensure that it is always possible to make a coding for those behaviours you wish to observe.

33. Table 8.2 Guidelines for developing your own coding schedule Attribute Comment Mutually exclusive Ensure that there is no overlap between behaviour categories

34. Table 8.2 Guidelines for developing your own coding schedule Attribute Comment Easy to record The observer must be able to tick the correct box quickly without having to memorise appropriate categories.

35. 8.6 Structured observation: data collection and analysis • Data analysis • It may be that the amount of interactions varies by the nature of the group or its activity, or that seating position is associated with the amount of contributions. • Patterns reflecting relationships between amounts of interaction categories may become evident, and this level of analysis is obviously more complex and will need computer software to calculate the cross-classifications.

36. 8.6 Structured observation: data collection and analysis • Threats to validity and reliability: • Subject error • Time error • Observer effect

37. Subject error Choose subjects who are in as many ways as possible ‘normal’ examples of the population under study.

38. Time error Conduct the observations at times which you consider ‘typical’ of the total time period in which you are interested.

39. Observer effect • The process of the observer’s observation changes the • nature of the behaviour owing to the fact that the • subject is conscious of being observed. • This poses a serious threat to validity and reliability. • Solutions –‘minimal interaction’ and ‘habituation’ • where those being observed either don’t notice you or • take observation for granted. • As habituation rises so the observer effect diminishes.

40. 8.7 Summary • Participant observation is a method in which the researcher participates in the lives and activities of those whom they are studying. It is used to attempt to get to the root of “what is going on”in a wide range of social settings. • You may use the participant observation method in a student placement or you may already be a member of an organization that will enable you to adopt the role of the practitioner-researcher.

41. 8.7 Summary • Participant observation means that you adopt a number of potential roles differentiated by the degree to which your identify is concealed from the subjects of the research and the degree to which you participate in the events you are studying. • Participant observation must avoid the trap of mere storytelling. The purpose is to develop theory.

42. 8.7 Summary • A prevalent form of data analysis used in participant observation is analytic induction. This may lead to an initial hypothesis being redeveloped more than once. • Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of events. It is characterized by a high level of predetermined structure and quantitative analysis.

43. 8.7 Summary • A choice may be made between “off-the-shelf” coding schedules and a schedule that you design for your own purpose. Alternatively you may decide to use a “hybrid”. • The main threats to reliability and validity inherent in structured observation are subject error, time error and observer effects.