What do we mean by the word “knowledge?”

1. What do we mean by the word “knowledge?” • It is a thick concept • When a short definition is not enough, it is called a thick concept word. • It can only be understood through experience and reflection • Examples: knowledge, love, betrayal • Maybe knowledge should be defined as “justified true belief”…

2. Justified true belief • I think he is a brave man. • A true belief must be justified in the right way to be knowledge. • I know he is a brave man because he got my iPod back from a thief. - Well, what if he just happened to find the iPod on the bus because the thief lost it the day after he stole it?

3. Truth • Also a thick concept • truth is independent of what anyone happens to believe is true • simply believing that something is true, does not make it true • even if EVERYONE believes that something is true… it may turn out to be false (e.g. Pluto as a planet) • How can we ever be sure that what we think we know really is true? • When we say that something is true, we usually mean that it is “beyond reasonable doubt”.

4. Belief • When you know something, then what you claim to know must not only be true, but you must also believe it to be true. • If you have no conscious awareness of something, then it makes little sense to say that you know it. • When you know something you are certain of it, and when you merely believe it you are not certain. • It is important to develop a reasonable and well-supported set of beliefs • Belief-knowledge continuum (page 25)

5. 3 examples of various kinds of belief • vague belief • I may vaguely believe that drinking coffee helps to reduce the risk of heart disease, but have no idea where I came across this idea and readily abandon it in the light of counter-evidence. • well-supported belief • I may believe that Drew Peterson killed Kathleen Savio, and be able to give evidence for my belief, but still be unwilling to say that I know that this is the case. • belief that is beyond reasonable doubt • I may find the evidence that there is no such thing as aliens so convincing that the counter-evidence of people finding signs of alien existence are untrue

6. Justification • In order to say that you know something you must be able to justify your belief, and your justification must be of the right kind; true belief is not enough alone • We usually justify our knowledge claims by appealing to one of the 4 ways of knowing… • If someone asks you how you know, you might reply… • Someone told me (language) • I saw it (perception) • I worked it out (reason) • It’s intuitively obvious (emotion)

7. Justification, cont’d. • The key thing that distinguishes acceptable from unacceptable justifications seems to be reliability. • E.g. perception vs. telepathy • When you say you know something you are, in a sense, taking responsibility for it being true. • E.g. “I’m positive that you can eat those berries.”

8. Levels of Knowledge • More to knowledge than simply saying it’s justified true belief • You may have… • a superficial grasp • a good understanding • complete mastery of a subject

9. Knowledge and Information • There is a difference between knowledge and understanding • Drilling random facts into someone’s mind may be good for a quiz show, but it does not lead to genuine understanding. • A person with genuine knowledge of a subject does not merely have information about it, but understands how the various parts are related to one another to form a meaningful whole. • Information = knowledge: bricks = a building

10. Second-hand knowledge • Our ability to communicate with one another also means that we are able to pass on our beliefs and practices from one generation to another in the form of culture. • Progressing by accumulating achievements of past generations • Primary knowledge: is not common in most learning situations. We mostly get second hand knowledge.

11. Knowledge by Authority/Testimony • Also known as second hand knowledge where truth is based on what another says • Main sources… • Cultural Tradition • School • The Internet • Expert Opinion • The News Media • All valuable sources of information, but not without limitations… (activity on page 31)

12. Cultural Tradition • The culture we grow up in has a strong influence on the way we see the world • We have a natural attachment to our own beliefs and practices • Our culture is what we consider as normal or rational • Living traditions are inherited but can change over time

13. School • What is the difference between education and indoctrination? • Education is what is taught. • Indoctrination is the way something is taught to you • The hallmark of a good school is on that encourages you to question things and think for yourself

14. The Internet • The advantage of the internet is its speed and accessibility • It can be a source for information and disinformation • Urban legend: disinformation – A story/belief that is passed along when there is no quality control. • Nostradamus predicted the attack on the World Trade Center • Waterproof sun-screen can cause blindness in children • If you mark “C” for all your answers on the ACT you will get a 16

15. Expert Opinion • Knowledge derived from experts, but those experts can be fallible • We have to rely on expert opinion to justify many of our knowledge claims • Accept that sometimes they are wrong and that they are experts in only certain topics within their field (no science experts but there are photosynthesis experts)

16. News Media • There is some bias in both the selection and presentation of news stories • There seem to be 3 common criteria for deciding what to put into a news bulletin • Bad news • Crimes, wars and natural disasters • Bad news bias: gives people a pessimistic view of the state of the planet and creates a climate of fear • Extraordinary news • It’s relevant news

17. Limitations of Second-hand Knowledge • Talking with people with different opinions may help us to improve our self-knowledge and develop a more balanced picture of the world.