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Chapter 8

Chapter 8. Cold War 1945 - 1958. Resumption of Civil Aviation. Nations demobilized Soviet Union did not War surplus transports International Aviation Many Questions Competition National Monopolies Regulation—international or individual gov’t Airspace free and open or sovereign

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Chapter 8

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  1. Chapter 8 Cold War 1945 - 1958

  2. Resumption of Civil Aviation • Nations demobilized • Soviet Union did not • War surplus transports • International Aviation • Many Questions • Competition • National Monopolies • Regulation—international or individual gov’t • Airspace free and open or sovereign • Airport Operators • Chicago Conference -- 1944

  3. Chicago Conference • November-December 1944 • International Conference on Civil Aviation issues • Rights of transit and landing • Allocation of commercial air routes • Safety issues • Technical matters • Navigation topics • 52 countries participated • Soviet Union did not

  4. Chicago Conference • Accepted U.S. standards • Air rules • Traffic control procedures • Communication practices • Meteorological services

  5. Five Freedoms • Freedom 1 (Air Transit) • Freedom to fly over foreign territory without landing • Freedom 2 (Air Transit) • Freedom to land for technical, non-traffic, non-commercial reasons • Refueling or repairs **Newfoundland excluded by British Strategic position

  6. Five Freedoms • Great Britain/United States disagreed • Freedom 3 (Air Transport) • Freedom to load passengers, mail, or cargo in the airline’s country of origin and disembark them in a foreign country • Freedom 4 (Air Transport) • Freedom to take on board passengers, mail, or cargo in a foreign country and to transport them to the airline’s country of origin

  7. Five Freedoms • Freedom 5 (Air Transport) • Freedom to transport passengers, mail, or cargo from one foreign country to another foreign country beyond the airline’s country • Canada acted as intermediary • One & Two adopted multilaterally • Three – Five formalized bilaterally • BY 1953, only 12 agreed to all 5

  8. Provisional ICAO • Organized in 1945 • 50 members • Headquartered in Montreal • Administered 96 articles of Chicago Convention • Active until ratification of Chicago Convention • Adopted U.S. radio and navigation aid system • Replaced in 1947 by permanent ICAO • Purpose • Ensure safety • Encourage civil aircraft design • Encourage development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities • Promote fair, safe, efficient, and economical operation of international standardization

  9. ICAO • 50 member nations • Purpose • Ensure safety • Encourage civil aircraft design • Encourage development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities • Promote fair, safe, efficient, and economical operation of international standardization

  10. ICAO • Telecommunications Services • Iceland and Greenland • Served N. Atlantic flights • 1952 • Defined absolute liability of aircraft operator for damage to third parties on ground • 1955 • Limited liability of air carrier to passengers

  11. IATA • International Air Transport Association • Successor to IATA of 1919 • 1945 - 57 members from 31 nations • Today – 230 members from 126 nations • Focused on air traffic operations • Established traffic conferences • Set international fares

  12. IATA • Bermuda Agreement - 1946 • Compromise of Chicago Conference • British • Yielded on frequency of service • Newfoundland included for Freedoms 1 & 2 • U.S. • Yielded on price by recognizing IATA as mechanism for joint rate-setting • In effect until 1977 • Bermuda 2 agreement • Bilateral agreements • Traded air rights for foreign gov’t support

  13. Resumption of Civil Aviation • Infrastructure • 535 airports built • ATC standardization • Aviation #1 industry during war #12 industry by 1948 Postwar boom in civil aviation • Civil Aeronautics Administration • Decentralized • Policy making in Washington • Regional policy administration • Designee program • Aircraft inspectors, flights instructors • Technical Standard Order (TSO)

  14. ICAO • Phonetic alphabet • English international language • Landing systems • Ground Control Approach (GCA - Military) • Instrument Landing System (ILS – Civil) • Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) • VOR – 1952 • 45,000 miles of Victor airways - 1954 • Standard approach lighting • British system favored

  15. Civil Aviation • General Aviation • Production suspended during war • Resumed in 1945 • 1946 – 35,001 civil aircraft • 1947 – 15,617 civil aircraft • Annual operating cost was ½ of initial price • New electronic navigation aids • 1948 – 7,302 civil aircraft • 1951 – 2,477 civil aircraft • 1945 – 20,000 private pilot licenses awarded • End of 1946 – 190,000 private pilots

  16. Commercial Aviation • United States Airlines • Big 5: • American • Eastern • Pan Am • TWA • United • Small: • Continental • Delta • Pennsylvania Central • Northeast

  17. Commercial Aviation • Competition • Domestic - Speed and service • International - “area competition” • TWA – Atlantic routes • American Export – Routes to Northern Europe • Pan Am – peacetime monopoly of foreign routes ended • Non-skeds • Pilots with wartime experience • War surplus aircraft • Charter service – freight service • Local service airlines

  18. Commercial Aviation • Airways Crisis – 1950s • Increased volume & type of air traffic • Inadequate facilities/equipment/funding • For safety, controllers spaced aircraft 10 minutes apart • Bad weather • Greater separation • Increased cancellations, delays, and near-misses • 1955 mid-air – 15 people died

  19. Commercial Aviation • Crisis Resolution • New and modern system required • Different technologies squabble • No common military/civilian system • Piecemeal solution • MIT • Semiautomatic Ground Environment • SAGE • Air defense system • Adopt to civil use?

  20. Crisis Resolution • Government • Long range radar facility in NY area • United Airlines • Installed airborne radar equipment in fleet • 1957 • Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System • Crashes continued--Near misses common

  21. FAA • Congress passed legislation in 1958 • Federal Aviation Act of 1958 • FAA independent department • Executive Branch • Fully operational 1 Jan 1959

  22. European Airlines • British Airlines • Lack of transports • Purchased American aircraft • Jet engine technology • Comet (50% faster than others) • British ahead of other nations • Farnborough Air Show • Orders from around the world • Flight tests in 1951 • 1st jet airline service – 2 May 1952 • London to Johannesburg

  23. European Airlines • Comet Crashes • 6 crashes in 1953-1954 • Certificate of airworthiness withdrawn • Hydraulic flight controls gave no feedback • Metal fatigue weakened fuselage • Commercial air service resumed in 1958 • Redesigned windows • Skin sheeting thickened • British led in • Crash investigation • Jet service • Maintaining worldwide network of routes • Developing long-haul routes

  24. Commercial Aviation • French Airlines • Civil air service resumed in 1945 • Aircraft from different nations • Soviet Airlines • Tupolev (Tu-104) 2nd jet airliner (1956) • National Airline (Aeroflot) • German Airlines • Pilots did not fly for 5 years • Lufthansa (1 Apr 1955) • Deutsche Lufthansa (4 Feb 1956)

  25. Commercial Aviation • European Lines • Pattern -- Create strong national airline • Consortium (SAS) • KLM • SABENA • Iberia • Finnair

  26. Commercial Aviation • Latin American Airlines • Strong Axis influence • U.S. provided support in 1941 • Countries nationalized Axis companies • Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Mexico • Led aviation in post-war Latin America

  27. Commercial Aviation • Africa and Asia Airlines • Decolonization • National and domestic airlines • Japan Airlines • SCAPIN 301 • Banned all civil aviation for 5 years • SCAPIN 2106 • Japan could create domestic airline

  28. Hot Spots • USSR - Stalin • Maintain territorial gains from war • Destroy Germany • Economic • Political • Military threat • Organized COMINFORM • Worldwide communism • U.S. - Truman • Containment and deterrence • Nuclear weapons – cheap alternatives

  29. Nuclear Weapons • U.S. • Sole nuclear power into 1949 • Soviet Union • 1949 • United Kingdom • 1952

  30. Germany • No German postwar gov’t established • 4 leading Allies occupied Germany • West Germany/West Berlin • United States • Great Britain • France • East Germany/East Berlin • Soviet Union

  31. Germany

  32. Berlin Air Lift • Western Allies • Develop Germany economically • Introduced single currency • Stalin • West would not risk war over Berlin • Soviet Union had not demobilized • Rail blockade through E. Germany • Total blockade – 24 June 1948

  33. Berlin Air Lift • Truman response • Berlin airlift • Atomic retaliation threat • B-29s sent to Britain

  34. Berlin Airlift • Operation Vittles • Start 26 Jun 1948 • Douglas C-47s • Required 5,000 tons/day • August 1948 • 1,500 flights/day • 4,500 tons cargo • Operation Little Vittles

  35. Berlin Aiflift • Operation Little Vittles • Gail Halvorsen • >3,000 tons of candy • West Berlin • Winter – 6,000 tons/day • New runway at Tempelhof • French airport • Soviet Response • Free food • Psychological warfare • Harassing flights (773)

  36. Berlin Aiflift • January 1949 • 171,000 tons • February 1949 • 152,000 tons • March 1949 • 196,223 tons • April 1949 • Easter Parade • April 15 – April 16 • 1,381 flights • 12,941 tons of coal

  37. Berlin Aiflift • April 1949 • 234,476 tons • Net tonnage • 6,729 tons/day • 8,893 tons/day

  38. Berlin Airlift • Blockade lifted • 12 May 1949 • Airlift ends on 30 Sep 1949 • U.S. delivered 1,783,573 tons • British delivered 541,937 tons • 101 fatalities

  39. Korean War • Korea divided after WWII • War began 25 Jun 1950 • PRK invaded South Korea • Rapidly pushed south • UN counterattack – Sep 1950 • 1 Oct 1950 – pushed PRK past 38th parallel • China intervention – 25 Oct 1950 • 300,000 Chinese troops cross Yalu River • Push UN back south • Truman authorizes atomic bombs • Guam

  40. Korean War • Jet Fighters • UN jet forces • F-84 Thunderjet • F-86 Sabre • Soviet jet forces • MiG-15 Fagot • MiGAlley

  41. Korean War • Bombing • B-29s • Used against N. Korea cities • Cities more than 50% destroyed • Tonnage (600 – 800 tons/day) • Chinese • Soviet Tupolev Tu-2 bombers

  42. Korean War • Rotorcraft • First large scale deployment • Medical Evacuation • Sikorsky H-19 • Development of AH-1 Cobra

  43. Korean War • Armistice • Established DMZ • China world power • Eisenhower’s New Look policy • Nuclear deterrence • Threat of nuclear retaliation

  44. Hot Spots • French colonies • French Colonial Wars • Vietnam (1 Nov 1955 – 30 April 1975) • Dien Bien Phu • French last stand • American presence increased • Operation Linebacker I and II • 15 Jan 1973 – offensive action suspended • 27 Jan 1973 – cease fire • American Aircraft • Grumman F6F Hellcat • Grumann F8F Bearcat

  45. Algeria • Significant use of helicopters • Helicopter technology • Gunship • Suppressive firepower • Transport • Loading doors & rear loading door • Need for reserve engine power • Importance of maintenance

  46. Atoms for Peace • Eisenhower’s UN speech • Lead to disarmament? • Atomic Energy Commission • Went public • Nuclear power plants • Medical applications • Nuclear Plane • 1946 – NEPA established • Millions spent • Program cancelled in 1961

  47. Rockets, Missiles, and Satellites • Air Defense • Truman initiated in 1945 • MIT and Michigan funded for research • Sage • Defense against enemy bombers • Digital computers processed information • Vacuum tube technology • Operational in one sector – 1958 • 22 0f 32 sectors operational • System obsolete by 1958 • Missile replacing bombers • Transistors replacing tubes

  48. Rockets, Missiles, and Satellites • Electronics • Vacuum tubes • First generation • Transistors • Second generation • Semi-conductor material • Integrated circuit • Third generation • Solid-state semiconductor material

  49. Aircraft • Bombers • US defense after war • Boeing B-47 • Over 1,900 produced • Soviet Bombers • Tupolev Tu-4 Bull • Mya-4 Bison • Tupolev Tu-95 Bear

  50. Bombers • US perceived gap of 2 superpowers • US increased bomber production • U-2 spy planes • Showed USSR lagged behind

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