South Korea

1. EDM 6402Qualitative Method in Educational ResearchLecture 6Comparative-Historical Study and Educational Institutions

9. South Korea

16. Towards a General Theory of Social Action of Institutionalized Values Weberdefines that “sociology is a science concerning itself with interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and consequence.” (Weber, 1976, p. 209) Towards a General Theory of Social Action 16

17. Towards a General Theory of Social Action of Institutionalized Values This definition has not only initiated the interpretive tradition in social sciences, it has also stipulated the tradition of verifying causal explanation of regularities in social action. In fact, these two research approach, which Weber has rightly characterized as two integral objectives that future sociologists must strive for, are currently juxtaposed by most practicing social researchers as two uncompromised camps, namely positivistic approach striving for universally predictable causality and interpretative approach striving for empathetically understanding of subjectivity. Towards a General Theory of Social Action 17

18. Towards a General Theory of Social Action of Institutionalized Values As Jürgen Habermas points out: “How are general theories of social action possible? General theories allow use to derive assumptions about empirical regularities in the form of hypotheses that serve the purpose of explanation. At the same time, and in contradistinction to natural processes, regularities of social action have the property of being understandable. Social action belongs to the class of intentional actions, which we grasp by reconstructing their meaning.” (Habermas, 1988, p. 11) Towards a General Theory of Social Action 18

19. Towards a General Theory of Social Action of Institutionalized Values Towards a General Theory of Social Action (1929 - 19

20. Towards a General Theory of Social Action of Institutionalized Values According to Haberman the missing link between intentional-subjective symbolic action and causal-predictable regularities in social actions is “institutional values”. As Habermas underlines “sociology is concerned only with institutional values. We can now formulate our question in amore specific form: How are general theories of action in accordance with institutionalized values (or prevailing norms) possible?” (Habermas, 1988, p. 75) Towards a General Theory of Social Action 20

21. What is Institutions? • The meaning of institutions: A social phenomenological perspective • Habitualization of actions: According to the social phenomenologist, in order to make human interaction possible, interacting partners have to go through a series of decision making on definitions of situation, typifications, and reciprocity of perspectives, therefore human interactions and human activities in general have the tendency to become habitualized. That is "any action that is repeated frequently becomes cast into a pattern, which can then be produced with an economy of effort and which, ipso facto, is apprehended by its performer as that pattern." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p. 70-71)

22. What is Institutions? • The meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective: • Habitualization of meanings: "Habitualized actions, of course, retain their meaningful character for the individual although the meanings involved become embedded as routines in his general stock of knowledge, taken for granted by him and at hand for the projects into the future. …Habitualization makes it unnecessary for each situation to be defined anew, step by step. A large variety of situation may be subsumed under its predefinitions." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p.71)

23. What is Institutions? • The meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective: • "Institutionalization occurs whenever there is a reciprocal typification of habitualized actions by types of actors. Put differently, any such typification is an institution." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p. 72)

24. What is Institutions? • The meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective: • The reciprocal typification of habitualized actions constituted within an institution implies the following structural features of an institution: • Historicity: "Reciprocal typifications of actions are built up in the course of a shared history. They cannot be created instantaneously. Institutions always have a history, of which they are the products. It is impossible to understand an institution adequately without an understanding of the historical process in which it was produced." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p.72) This structural feature of historicity of institution implies an essential methodological implication in the study of institution, that is, study the historical configuration, from which the current institution emerged and developed, is vital to any institutional analysis.

25. What is Institutions? • The meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective: • Structure features of an institution: • Social control: "Institutions …, by the very fact of their existence, control human conduct by setting up predefinied patterns of conduct, which channel it in one direction as against the many other directions that would theoretically be possible. …These mechanism (the sum of which constitute what is generally called a system of social control) do …exist in many institutions and in all the agglomerations of institutions that we call societies. …To say that a segment of human activity has been institutionalized is already to say that this segment of human activity has been subsumed under social control." (p. 72-73)

26. What is Institutions? • The meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective: • Structure features of an institution: • Socialization: As a set of reciprocal typifications of habitualized actions has achieved its historicity, i.e. proven its social efficacy through time and has further been backed up by social control mechanism, it can be said that this set of intersubjectivity has been externalized and objectivated. However to complete the cycle of institutionalization, this intersubjectivity must in turn be internalized into the subjectivity of the new members of a culture. It is by means of socialization, acculturation, education, or even indoctrination that new members will acquire the "common-sense knowledge" necessary to be able to become fully functional members of a culture.

27. The meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective: Structure features of an institution: Legitimation Explanation of cognitive validity Justification of normative dignity What is Institutions? 27

28. Comparative-Historical Methods in Institutional Studies • Jürgen Schreiwer, a researcher in comparative education, suggests that education institution can be studies with the "functional-cum-configurational" approach. More specifically, it is a combination of both functional comparative method with configurational-historical method. (2003) Accordingly, the research methods in educational institution studies to be explicated are: • Functional-comparative approach • Configurational-historical approach

29. The concept of functional equivalence: The concept of function: Jurgen Schriewer defines function as "the performance achieved for the maintenance of whole entities or systems by elements of such entities or component parts of such system." (Schreiwer, 2003, p. 37) Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies 29

30. The concept of functional equivalence: The concept of functional prerequisite: According to traditional functionalists, such as A,R. Radcliff-Brown and Talcott Parsons, function are conceived as "necessary conditions of existence" of social systems (Kincaid, 2007, p.217). Parsons further specifies these functional prerequisites of social systems into four (Kincaid, 2007, p.217) adaptation ― obtaining resource from the environment integration ― maintain coherent relationship among their component elements goal attainment ― setting goals and allocating resources to achieve them latency ― reproducing organizational structure and managing tension between units. Parsons asserts that these four functions are prerequisites of the existence of social system. Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies 30

31. The concept of functional equivalence: Critique on functional prerequisites: Functionalists' strong version of defining functions as "the prerequisites" and "necessary condition of the existence" of social system and Parsons' specification of them into four AGIL constituents have been criticized as too deterministic. Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies 31

32. The concept of functional equivalence: Critique on functional interconnection and equilibrium theses: G.A. Cohen in his explication of the functional explanation thesis in Marxism criticizes the functionalists' assumption that all constituents in a social system are "functionally connected" and "support or reinforce one another" and suggests that this assumption is not necessary in the logical structure of a functional explanation. (Cohen, 1978, p. 283-285) This implicates that some constituents of a social system may be dysfunctionally or even antagonistically connected with the essential core of a given social system. As a result, the thesis of totality of functional connection can be forsaken and so is the thesis of equilibrium and benign stability of the social system. Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies 32

33. The concept of functional equivalence: To relax functionalists' assumptions on the functional prerequisite and totality of functional interconnection, we may simply redefine functions as contributions or benefits a given constituent could offer to the maintaining of the essential core of the social system. Accordingly, the conception of functional prerequisite can be replaced by functional equivalence. As a result, what we are looking for are contributing and beneficial conditions instead of necessary conditions (or even sufficient condition) for the maintaining of the essential core of the social system. Furthermore, the strong version of functionalists' specification of functional prerequisites into AGIL can also be relaxed. Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies 33

34. Functional equivalence perspective in comparative research In comparing societies or particular institutions, such as education, in different societies, concept of functional equivalence can be served as heuristic concept to the issue of comparability. From the concept of functional equivalence, we may initiate comparative research by posing "first that different structures may perform the same function, and second, that the same structure may perform several different functions." (Dogan and Pelassy, 1984, p. 37) Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies 34

35. Functional equivalence perspective in comparative research Conception of dissociation of functions and structures: "The search for functional equivalences passes through this analytical dissociation of roles and function. The same performance may be accomplished in various countries by different organs, and similar or comparable institutions may fulfill, in various countries, different tasks." (Dogan Pelassy, 1984, p. 37) Accordingly, comparative researches may be categorized as follows. Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies 35

36. Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies 36

37. Functionalism: For education institution, Parsons underlines that school class performs two essential functions to the equilibrium of the social system of modern society. Socialization function: "School class functions to internalize in its pupils both the commitments and capacities for successful performance of their future adult roles." (Parson, 2004, p. 32) Selection function: School class on the other hand "functions to allocate these human resources within role-structure of the adult society." (p. 32) Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education Research 37

38. Functional explanation in Marxian perspective: The theory of equilibrium as "consequence law" in functionalism has been criticized for conservative and legitimatizing the status quo (Cohen, 1978, p.284; Turner and Maryanski, 1995, p.55-56) Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education Research 38

39. Functional explanation in Marxian perspective: G.A. Cohen, one of the prominent members of Analytical Marxism, in reconstructing historical materialism offers a selection theory through class struggle as the "consequence law" for his functional explanations. In the functional explanation of the relationship between force of production and relation of production (class relation) Cohen suggests Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education Research 39

40. Functional explanation in Marxian perspective: G.A. Cohen, … "Classes are permanently poised against one another, and that class tends to prevail whose rule would best meet the demands of production. But how does the fact that production would prosper under a certain class ensure its dominance? Part of the answer is that there is a general stake in stable and striving production, so that the class best placed to deliver it attracts allies from other strata in society. Prospective ruling classes are often able to raise support among the classes subjected to the ruling class they would displace. Contrariwise, classes unsuited to the task of governing society tend to lack the confidence political hegemony requires, and if they do seize power, they tend not to hold it for long." (Cohen, 1978, 292) Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education Research 40

41. Functional explanation in Marxian perspective: G.A. Cohen, … In the functional explanation of the relationship between infrastructure and superstructure, Cohen once again suggests "All classes are receptive to whatever ideas are likely to benfit them, and ruling classes are well placed to propagate ideologies particular congenial to themselves. But before an ideology is received or broadcast it has to be formed. And on that point there are traces in Marx of a Darwinian mechanism, a notion that thought-systems are produced in comparative independence from social constraint, but persist and gain social life for ideological service. …There is a kind of 'ideological pool' which yields elements in different configurations as social requirements change." (Cohen, 1978, p.291) Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education Research 41

42. Functional explanation in Marxian perspective: As for the functional explanation of education institution, Marxist conceptions can be summarized into two counts Reproduction function: As Louis Althuser indicates education is part of the ideological apparatus of the state, which performs the function of reproduction of the prevailing class relation of a given society. (Althusser, 1971; Carnoy, 1982; see also Bowles and Gintis, 1976; Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977; Apple, 1979) Legitimatizing function: Bowles and Gintis indicate that the highly selective and competitive structure of education does not only corresponds but in fact legitimatizing the inequality found in the class structure of capitalist society. )Bowles & Gintis, 1976) Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education Research 42

43. Functional explanation of education in Weberian perspective Max Weber has rendered a function explanation of the relationship between education contents and forms of domination in societies. (Weber, 2004) Margret Archer has also expounded that domination and assertion among status groups as the primary factor contributing to education expansion in recent decades. Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education Research 43

44. In light of these perspectives, the functional equivalence comparison framework can be elaborated as follow. Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education Research 44

45. 45

46. Applying the general theory of functional equivalence of development of education institutions in specific national context, education researchers can undertake historical-sociological studies on how education institution is transformed within the social and historical context of a particular society. There are varieties of approaches to historical-sociological studies of education institution, such as The Weberian historical-sociological approaches, The Marist historical-sociological approach, The new-institutionalist approach, etc. Methodological details of these approaches will be explicated in EDM 6003. Configurational-Historical method in study of morphogenesis of education institution 46

47. Functional-equivalence comparative study of global education reform Education Reform in the UK Lifetime learning: A policy framework (1996) The learning age: A renaissance for new Britain (1998) Education Reform in the US Goal 2000 Act, 1994 A nation learning: Version for the 21st Century (1997) No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 Education Reform in Canada Knowledge Matters: Skills and learning for Canadians (2002) Achieving excellence: Investing in people, knowledge and opportunity (2002) Comparative-Historical Approach to Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism 47

48. Functional-equivalence comparative study of global education reform Education Reform in Australia National Board of Employment, Education and Training (1996) Lifelong learning ―― Key issues Dept. of Education, Science and Training (1998) Learning for life: Review of higher education financing and policy (1998) Dept. of Education, Science and Training (2003) Lifelong learning in Australia Education Reform in South Korea Ministry of Education Adapting Education to the Information Age (2000-2004) Education Reform in Singapore: Education for Learning Society in the 21st Century (2000) Comparative-Historical Approach to Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism 48

49. Functional-equivalence comparative study of global education reform Education Reform in Taiwan 教育改革行動方案, 1998 Education Reform in HKSAR Education Commission (2000) Education for Life and Education through Life OECD (1991) The lifelong learners in the 1990s. OECD (1996) Lifelong learning for all. OECD (2001) Education policy analysis 2001. UNESCO (1996) Learning: The Treasure from within. European Commission (1995) Teaching and learning: Towards the learning society Comparative-Historical Approach to Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism 49

50. Configurational-historical study of global education reform of HKSAR Comparative-Historical Approach to Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism 50