Compounding in English

1. Compounding in English Compounding: The process of combining two words (free morphemes) to create a new word (commonly a noun, verb, or adjective). Compounds in English are written sometimes as one word (sunglasses), sometimes as two hyphenated words (life- threatening), and sometimes as two separate words (football stadium).

2. Compounding in English 1- The components of the compounding words. • The first element of a compound can be: a- a noun, e.g. armchair b- an adjective, e.g. blackboard c- a verb, e.g. drawback d- a pronoun, e.g. he goat • The second element of a compounding noun can be: a- a noun, e.g. goldsmith b- a pronoun, e.g. overall c- a verb or verb stem, e.g. smash-and-grab, chimney-sweep d- an adverb, e.g. passer-by, fly-over

3. Compound Nouns • Noun + Noun : manservant , woman doctor • Subject + Verb = sunrise , daybreak • Verb + Object = pick-pocket • Verb + Verb = make-believe • Adjective + noun = fast-food , software • Phrase compound = son-in-law • Subject + object = car cable , chairperson • Subject + complement = blackboard , ashtray

4. Compound Verbs • Noun + verb = sky-dive , carbon-copy • Verb + verb = freeze-dry • Particle + verb = overlook , • Adjective + noun = badmouth • Noun + noun = breath-test • Adverb + verb = downsize , upgrade • Adjective + verb = white-wash , blacklist Compound Adjectives • Verb +object = life-giving , man-eating • Verb + adverbial = airborne , far-fetched • Adjective + adjective = bitter-sweet, open-ended Compound Adverbs: off-hand, over-night

5. Syntactic relation between the two elements a. Syntactic word group relations, e.g. part of speech son-in-low, good- for nothing. b. co-ordination, e.g. bread-and-butter, gin-and-tonic. c. Verb and object, e.g. cease-fire. d. adjective and noun, e.g. blackbird, bluebell. e. Adverb and verb, e.g. downpour, outlay. f. Adverb and noun, e.g. outpost. g. The first element may denote the subject daybreak. h. the first element denote the object, e.g. bloodshed.

6. Semantic relationship between the two elements of compound word a. The first element denotes place or time, e.g. headache place nightclub time b. The first element denotes purpose, e.g. teacup, tea bag, water glass c. The first element denotes means or instrument, e.g. handwriting, typewriting d. The first element denotes resemblance, e.g. goldfish e. The first element denotes sex, e.g. manservant, maidservant, lady speaker

7. Classes of Compounds • Endocentric: The rightmost element of the compound identifies the class that the meaning of the entire word is related to, e.g. dog food , afireman , fast food , blackboard • Exocentric: the meaning of the compound does not come from the meaning of its parts, e.g. redhead, egghead, turncoat

8. Types of Compounds 1- Solid or closed Compounds: two usually moderately short words appear together as one, e.g. housewife, lawsuit, weekend wallpaper, makeup a- Compass directions are closed like: northwest / southeast b-Numbers suffixed with fold are closed as in: ninetyfold / sevenfold / twofold c- preposition+ verb like: underline / outrun d- Adverb+ verb like: update / downsize e- Adjective+ verb as: blacklist / whitewash f-Noun+ verb as: manhandle / sidestep

9. Types of Compounds 2- Hyphenated Compounds: two or more words are connected by a hyphen. • Compounds containing affixes such as house-build(er)and single-mind(ed) (ness), • adjective-adjective compounds: bitter-sweet, dark-green • verb-verb compounds: freeze-dry • Compounds containing particles (prepositions or conjunctions): mother-in-law ,salt-and-pepper • Adjectives preceding nouns like: round-table / four-year child

10. Types of Compounds 3- Open or spaced Compounds involves a newer combination of usually longer words such as: distance learning lawn tennis police station cigarette lighter

11. Arabic Compounds Most Arabic compounds consist of lexical items separated by a space such as: أبو بكر, مكة المكرمة , حمى الشوكية * Very few compounds are agglutinated (spelled together) such as بعلبك, حضرموت , طولكرم

12. Arabic Compounds • The Construct Compound: المركب الإضافي The syntactic relation between the components is of the possessive or genitive case, e.g. دودة الارض يوم الحساب عجلة القيادة عبدالله 2. Fusional compound المركب المزجي , e.g. two or more words are fused and become as one حضرموتبيت لحم ،بعلبك ، 3. Predicative compound المركب الإسنادي : The syntactic structure is that of predication , e.gتأبط شرا (he has taken evil under his arm)

13. Arabic compound Nouns Compound Nouns: • Personal proper nouns أبو بكر , عبدالله , امرؤ القيس , محيي الدين ,أم هاني • Geographical names دير ياسين , بيت لحم ,جزر الفلبين , خط الاستواء , عين جالوت • Titles أمين العاصمة ، أمير المؤمنين ، وزير الخارجية، النائب العام • Others ناطحة سحاب ، مجلس النواب ، سفينة فضاء ، بساط الريح ، عباد الشمس

14. Noun + adjective : These are very productive in Arabic as in the following: • Geographical names : • الاتحاد السوفيتي، بريطانيا العظمى، المحيط الهادي البحرالاحمر، الشرق الاقصى، الجزر البريطانية، القطب الجنوبي • Subject names: الفيزياء النووية ، علاج طبيعي ، طب شعبي

15. Compound Adverbs Adverb + particle: حيثما,أينما, حينئذ , وقتئذ • Compound Particles مما، لكنما، لئلا، ممن، فيمن، عمن، عما، طالما، كلما، لئن

16. الحروف المركبة compound particlesare particles combined with ma which has various meanings ربما (rubbaرب + ma ما ) perhaps حيثما (haythuحيث + ma ما ) whenever حالما ، لولا ، كيفما ، ريثما • Defective verb compound: They are usually construed with /ma ما/ as their first element. This particle may add the sense of duration or negation to the second element. ما دام ، ما برح ، ما زال ، ما انفك • Compound numerals: ثلاث عشر ، اثنان وعشرون • Rhyme‐Motivated Compounds (التركيب الاتباعي) اهلا وسهلا، هب ودب، كثير بثير، هرج ومرج، حيص بيص

17. Problems That students face in using compounds 1. Putting the incorrect complement to the other part: housewife house women. 2. Difficulty in memorizing the compounds since the compound is a specific concept as a whole and we cannot change its parts. 3. Not putting a hyphen to isolate two words which confuse the meaning: round-table meeting not a round table 4. Changing the parts of compound, e.g. overlook look over

18. Activities for teaching Compounding • For each compound word, make three picture cards. One card should include an image of the compound word while the other two cards should include images of the two words that form the compound. • For example, use a picture of a tooth and a picture of abrush for the compound word toothbrush.As an activity, hold up the two cards that make up the compound. Have the learners figure out the words and then the compound word. Once the students have figured out the compound, show them the picture of the compound word. This picture card activity also teaches young children that compounds are formed by combining two or more words.