The Role of the Physical Environment in the Decision to Offend (or Not)

1. The Role of the Physical Environment in the Decision to Offend (or Not)

2. Environmental Criminology • Why study Environmental Criminology? • To better understand crime patterns as an aid for law enforcement officials • Build safer / non-criminogenic communities

3. Environmental Criminology • Assumes crime is interplay of motivation, opportunity, mobility and perception • Brantingham & Brantingham suggest the following model for crime site selection: • Exists an individual who is motivated to commit a crime • Decision to actually commit includes seeking & identifying within his/her environment, a target • Taking into account physical, spatial, cultural, legal & psychological cues from the environment

4. Environmental Criminology • Brantingham & Brantingham’s model for crime site selection cont’d: • Use those cues to assess whether the target is a “good” target (this process can be learned through experience or passed on through conversation • Experience helps criminals form cue template to be used for future victim / target selection • Template becomes self reinforcing • Different crimes, and different criminals have different templates, but all have similarities

5. Distance Decay Theory • Distance decay, or familiarity decay theory • Hypothesizes that there exists a negative relationship between distance and crime • Thus most offenders choose a target relatively close to home • Ratcliffe (2006) suggests that distance travel is limited by biological constraints, coupling constraints, authority constraints

6. Rational Choice Theory • Rational choice theory assumes that when all other things equal (such as risk of being caught, reward, etc), criminals will always choose the option that requires the least amount of time and energy • It takes time, $ and effort to go longer distances, thus crime generally occurs close to home • More is known about own community than other communities, thus staying close to home will avoid having to gather information about other communities

7. Routine Activities Theory • It has been noted that much criminal activity occurs in and around normal, non-criminal routine paths centered around places frequented (nodes) • Nodes can include home, shopping centers, schools, entertainment complexes, etc. • Visiting these nodes increases an individual’s awareness space • Awareness spaces are parts of the city the individuals have knowledge about • Awareness space expands from the nodes themselves and paths between them to include fringe areas (Diffusion Effect)

8. Routine Activities • Criminals converse with one another, transmitting techniques, and criminal attitudes, • Very likely interpersonal contact declines with distance thus fostering own crime in own neighbourhood • Social contacts also serve to modify awareness spaces

9. Assessing “Good” or “Bad” • Variables such as availability, potential pay-off, and risk of apprehension are considered when deciding whether a target is “good” or “bad” • “Good” target areas generally have low perceived risk

10. Explaining Areas with High Crime • Sociodemographic characteristics of a neighbourhood, such as age, sex, gender, ethnicity, etc. can influence crime in that area • For example, community of older adults encompasses many who aren’t as mobile, thus less likely to commit crime • Exists higher motivation to commit crime in certain socioeconomic groups

11. Explaining Areas with High Crime • Urban cities with dense core are criminogenic • Have higher concentration of criminals • minimizes awareness space of criminals • less deterred by space • Major highways and intersections have a higher concentration of crime • Deemed safe because of the possibility for easy escape • These areas generally have a disproportionately more targets (due to increased traffic, and retail / commercial / residential buildings)

12. Explaining Areas with High Crime • Crime and street design: Areas with grid-like roads have potential for higher crime rates in that area

13. Geographic Profiling…Theories @ Work • Students of Brentingham and Brentingham, Kim Rossmo applied their theories in a backward manner to locate repeat offenders • Currently, a computerized Criminal Geographic Targeting (CGI) system is used to input spatial data • This data produces three-dimensional model called the jeopardy surface • Jeopardy surface is a colour coded probability map of the area indicating probable places of work or residence of the offender

14. Jack The Ripper • Infamous serial killer who brought much fear to London residents in 1888 • He was never apprehended for his crimes • Recently, geographic profiling utilized to hypothesize that Jack the Ripper lived in the vicinity of the crime scenes • Characteristics of the neighbourhood of killings: • Heavily populated • Horrible living conditions • Home to over 1000 prostitutes • Many streets were dark, windy, dimly lit and had many dead end alleys

15. Jack the Ripper Continued • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QCdskRH-B6s

16. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

17. CPTED: What is it? • Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design is an approach to build a building or community that deters criminal activity. • Use of CPTED is used to not only reduce criminal activity, but to encourage residents to take more responsibility and control over their homes and neighborhoods.

18. Why Use CPTED • CPTED is a theory that “attempts to draw a relationship between the immediate physical environment and crime which is independent of prevailing social conditions.” • It is theorized that today’s spatial designs minimizes social interaction and breaks down community cohesiveness.

19. History of CPTED • CPTED was originally formulated by criminologist C. Ray Jeffery who also coined the term in 1971 • Architect Oscar Newman “Defensible Space: - Crime Prevention through Urban Design" came out in 1972, who credits Jeffrey as originator for the term CPTED

20. History of CPTED Continued… • Jeffrey continued to work on his model, expanding it to a multi-disciplinary approach including biology and psychology. • CPTED is now understood to refer strictly to the Newman/Crowe type models, those being the most comprehensive models. • 1997 saw the coming of 2nd Generation CPTED which adapts CPTED to offender individuality

21. Applications of CPTED • 4 main ways Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design is used: • Natural Surveillance • Territorial Reinforcement • Natural Access Control • Target Hardening

22. Natural Surveillance • Involves ways of keeping intruders observable by maximizing visibility of: -People -Parking areas -Building entrances

23. This stairwell design gives the opportunity for natural surveillance, and to be heard if help is required. Natural Surveillance

24. Territorial Reinforcement • This promotes social control through increased definition of space and improved propriety concern. This is done through: -Landscaping and maintenance (Broken window theory) -Displaying security camera signs -Scheduling activities in common areas

25. This image has defined spaces, and a fence that allows surveillance while also clearly indicating property lines, Territorial Reinforcement

26. Natural Access Control • This is directly aimed at decreasing crime opportunity by denying access to criminals and putting offenders at a greater risk of being caught. This is done by: -Using a single point of entry -Use of reception areas -Using locking gates between front and back yards

27. A cul de sac neighborhood has only one way in and therefore only one way out. Natural Access Control

28. Target Hardening • Anything that restricts access or entry such as window locks, deadbolt doors, and interior door hinges.

29. Target Hardening

30. Conceptual Model of Burglary Process • Sequential decision making judgments by the burglar. • Sequence involves picking out the street, a particular lot, and the residence itself.

31. Conceptual Model of Burglary Process • The burglar takes particular cues about the extent to which a boundary is considered public territory. Theses cues include -Actual and symbolic environmental barriers -How much residents can detect intruders -Whether or not the residence looks used -Whether or not the community is a close-knit community

32. Case Example of CPTED Damage on Buses: The Effects of Supervision

33. Damage on Buses: The Effects of Supervision Continued… • 99 buses chosen from Greater Manchester Transport • 25% random sample from 4 main types of double decker buses • Damage recorded by researcher over 5 evenings • 3 types of damage recorded

34. Results • All 4 types of buses had the worst damage on the upper level than on the lower level • Difference most pronounced on rear entrance buses • Most pronounced on one-man operated buses and dual purpose buses

35. Results Continued • Back seats had most extensive damage • These results not unexpected • On rear entrance conventional buses, there was more damage to the front of the bus than center or rear- displacement?

36. Main Findings • Greatest amount of damage on buses without a conductor • Damage was greatest in areas of low supervision, even on buses with conductors • This may be nothing new, but the magnitude of damage observed should not be ignored

37. Critiques of Bus Study • Bus company does not allow damage to go unrepaired • Bus age also needs to be taken into account • Some damage may be caused by “extensive ordinary wear”

38. CPTED Closer to Home

39. Student Center Stairwell Student Center has all floors open to the food court below Lots of windows Natural Surveillance

40. William Small Parking Garage Glass windows in Stairwell Open rooftop Open walls Natural Surveillance

41. York Lanes Parking Garage

42. York Lanes Mall Parking Garage Garage Attendents Only one way in and out for vehicles Natural Access Control

43. Problems in Implementing CPTED • Cost • Time planning • Dislocation • Sunk costs

44. Critique of CPTED • Critics consider CPTED a moot point because it does not address the root cause of crime • Increased number of eyes results in a diffusion of responsibility • Marking property does little to return the property once it is stolen

45. No guarantee that neighbors will intervene • Lack of cohesion is held more accountable for the undefended spaces, attributed to ethnic fragmentation • There are too many variables that intervene and cannot be controlled