Environmental Psychology

1. Environmental Psychology 2nd Lecture

2. Introduction ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY studies the relationship between environments and human behavior as well as how they affect one another. These environments include social settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments. Why are some spaces comfortable and others threatening? How can we enhance our environments to reduce stress, create more efficiency, and minimize accidents? These are a few questions that environmental psychologists work with AS WELL AS DESIGNERS.

3. Another definition of environmental psychology • The study of human behaviour and well-being in relation to the sociophysical environment (Stokols & Altman, 1987). • The branch of Psychology concerned with providing a systematic account of the relationship between a person and the environment (Russell & Snodgrass, 1987).

4. Humans react both consciously and unconsciously to the area in which they live and work. Their environment, whether it be natural or man made, has a profound effect on: • feelings, • behaviors, • general health issues, and • productivity.

5. GOAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY • The goal of the field is to solve problems involving human-environmental interactions and to create, manage, protect, and restore environments that promote proper behavior. • Researchers diagnose problem situations and recommend solutions.

6. HOW DO ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGISTS WORK? • A great majority of research in Environmental Psychology is done in the field rather than in the lab. • Environmental psychologists assess, analyze, and advise on personal space and environments in general. • They usually work in teams with other professionals such as urban and city planners, architects, economists, engineers, and designers, etc.

7. A Brief History • Research in Environmental Psychology started in 1950 with a campaign to improve mental hospitals. Architects in charge of building these hospitals where more concerned with the structure rather than human needs. • They turned to psychologists for information on cognition and social and human behavior. • This collaboration between architects and psychologists created a field called Architectural Psychology.

8. Over the years, problems expanded beyond architectural situations to parks and landscapes, thus creating Environmental Psychology. • Researchers began discovering the mismatches between humans and their environment. • Psychologists began trying to solve these problems through improved design. A field that had started with investigating color and chair arrangements in mental hospitals moved to tracking visitors in national parks and studying the stresses associated with urban commuting (traffic).

9. Barker’s Ecological Theory • The first significant findings in environmental psychology can be traced back to researcher Roger Barker, who founded his research station in Kansas in 1947, and ran it for several decades. • From detailed field observations he developed the theory that social settings influence behavior.

10. Barker spent his career expanding on what he called ecological psychology, identifying these behavior settings. The "behavior setting" remains a valid principle which receives serious attention. In a store, people assume their roles as customers; in school and church, proper behavior issomehow coded in the place.

11. Architecture • provides settings for certain activities (sports, education, etc.) • It reminds people of what certain activities are, (eating, studying, etc.) • It signifies power, status, or privacy ( wealth, richness, residential) • It expresses and supports beliefs (mosques, churches). • It communicates information (the time a building was built, the climate, thickness of the walls, etc.) • It helps establish individual or group identity (Home vs. classroom, studios) • And it encodes value systems (Different types of buildings in different cultures)

12. Designers are liable of designing spaces in respect to their prospective users. It is their responsibility to enable users where they are and how they can reach or use the services provided. • Designers need to communicate some messages, in order to be able to do this they need to understand how people perceive their surroundings.

13. Areas of Study • Wayfinding • Effects of Noise • Population Density • Effects of High Density on Humans • Effects of Density on Social Behavior • Effects of Crowding • Effects of Urban Life • Environmental Solutions to Urban Problems • Personal Space and Territorial Behavior • Residential Environments • Attachment to Place • Preferences • Satisfaction With the Home Environment • Neighborhood and Community Environments • Institutional Environments • Classroom Settings • Hospital Settings • Museum Environments • Prison Design and Behavior • Designing for the Elderly • Work Environments • Ambient Work Environments • Territoriality and Status • Human Factors • Open-Plan vs. Private Offices

14. When solving problems involving human-environment interactions, it is essential to: • have a model of human nature that predicts the conditions under which humans will behave in a decent and creative manner. • We can use theories in order make assumptions on general human behaviour.

15. One of the most important functions of a theory is: • to provide generalizations that give order and meaning to specific observations about person-environment relations.

16. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology that Abraham Maslow proposed in 1943(A Theory of Human Motivation). • Maslow studied exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that: • "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy." • Maslow also studied the healthiest one percent of the college student population.

17. Maslow has a theory of motivation based on needs that people have. He arranges them in order of importance; that is, he believes you must fulfill the lower needs before achieving a higher one. If you achieve something near the top first, happiness will not last; but if you climb up the pyramid of needs, you will achieve great satisfaction with life.

18. While Maslow's theory was regarded as an improvement over previous theories of personality and motivation, it had its detractors. For example, some researchers found little evidence for the ranking of needs that Maslow described, or even for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all.

19. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: • The four lower levels are Deficiency needs that are grouped together as being associated with Physiological needs, while the top level is termed asGrowth needs associated with Psychological needs. • DEFICIENCY NEEDS PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS • GROWTH NEEDS PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS • Deficiency needs must be met first. Once these are met, seeking to satisfy growth needs drives personal growth. The higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid are satisfied.

20. Growth needs Deficiency needs

21. Deficiency needs • The first four layers of the pyramid are what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "D-needs": the individual does not feel anything if they are met, but feels anxious if they are not met. • The deficiency needs are: • Physiological, • Safety needs, • Love/Belonging, and • Esteem needs.

22. Physiological needs • These are the basic animal needs for such things as air, water, food, warmth, sex, sleep and other body needs. • When these are not satisfied we may feel sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, etc. These feelings motivate us to alleviate them as soon as possible to establish homeostasis. Once they are alleviated, we may think about other things. • For exampleif a person is hungry or thirsty or his body is chemically unbalanced, all of his energies turn toward remedying these deficiencies, and other needs remain inactive.

23. The physiological needs of the [organism] (those enabling [homeostasis]) take first precedence. • The physiological needs consist mainly of: • Eating • Drinking • Sleeping • Excretion • Sex • Warmth • If some needs are not fulfilled, a human's physiological needs take the highest priority. Physiological needs can control thoughts and behaviors, and can cause people to feel sickness, pain, and discomfort.

24. Safety needs • With his physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take over and dominate his behavior. • Safety needs are: • man's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, • the familiar frequent, and • the unfamiliar rare. • In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like.

25. Safety needs include: • Personal security from crime • Financial security • Health and well-being • Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts

26. Love/Belonging/Social needs • After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as: • friendship • sexual intimacy • having a supportive and communicative family

27. Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a largesocial group (such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs) or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). • They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and depression. • This need for belonging can sometimes overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure. e.g. an anorexic ignores the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of belonging.

28. Esteem needs • All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect, and to respect others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or a hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem, inferiority complexes.

29. People with low self-esteem especially need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. • However, confidence, competence and achievement only need one person and everyone else is inconsequential to one's own success. • It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

30. Growth needs • Though the deficiency needs may be seen as "basic", and can be met and neutralized; self-actualization and transcendence are "being" or "growth needs" (also termed "B-needs"), i.e. they are enduring motivations or drivers of behavior.

31. Cognitive needs • Maslow believed that humans have the need to increase their intelligence and thereby chase knowledge. • Cognitive needs is the expression of the natural human need to learn, explore, discover and create to get a better understanding of the world around them.

32. Aesthetic needs • Based on Maslow's beliefs, humans need beautiful imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to continue up towards Self-Actualization. • Humans need to refresh themselves in the presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer.

33. Self-actualization • Self-actualization — a concept Maslow attributed to Kurt Goldstein, one of his mentors — is the instinctual need of humans to make the most of their abilities and to strive to be the best they can.

34. Maslow writes the following of self-actualizing people: • They embrace the facts and realities of the world (including themselves) rather than denying or avoiding them. • They are spontaneous in their ideas and actions. • They are creative. • They are interested in solving problems; this often includes the problems of others. Solving these problems is often a key focus in their lives. • They feel a closeness to other people, and generally appreciate life. • They have a system of morality that is fully internalized and independent of external authority. • They have discernment and are able to view all things in an objective manner.

35. Other Theories and Approaches • Stimulation Theories conceptualize the environment as a source of sensory information. The stimulation includes: • Simple stimuli such as light, color, sound, noise, heat and cold, and, • Complex stimuli such as buildings, streets, outdoor settings, and other people.

36. Stimulation varies in amount and meaning. • Amount of stimulation includes dimensions such as intensity, duration, frequency, and number of sources. • Meaning of stimulation refers to each person’s integration and interpretation of the stimulus information.

37. Stimulation based theories • Adaptation-level Theory: Individuals adapt to certain levels of stimulation in certain contexts, no particular amount of stimulation is good for everyone. • Arousel Theories: These are based on the assumption that the form and content of a broad range of our behavior and experience are related to how physiologically aroused we are.

38. Overload Theory: concentrates on the effects of too much stimulation (noise, heat, cold, crowding). • Restricted Environmental Stimulation: Too little stimulation causes problems in some circumstances, and has positive effects in others such as easy cognitive tasks.

39. Barabasz, Antartika'da görevli ABD'li askerlerle yaptığı çalışmada, uyaranın sınırlı olduğu, yalıtılmış ortamlarda yaşayanların daha kolay hipnotize edilebildiklerini, telkine daha açık olduklarını, kolay yönlendirilebildiklerini göstermiştir.5 Harrison, duyusal yoksunlukla, otistik düşünce gelişimi arasında ilişki olup olmadığını araştırdığı çalışmasında, 36 deneği, belirli ölçüde duyusal olarak yalıtmış ve bu deneklerde ego gücünün zayıfladığını, otistik düşünce bozukluğu belirtilerinin geliştiğini gözlemiştir.6 Soutter, duruş, yürüyüş, davranış ve iletişim bozukluğu gösteren, anne ve babası dışındakileri kol mesafesinden yakına yaklaştırmayan 10 yaşındaki bir çocukla ilgili vaka analizinde, bu tablonun ilk çocuklarını kaybettikleri için, söz konusu çocuklarını evden dışarı çıkarmayan, infeksiyon korkusuyla kimseyle görüştürmeyen anne, babanın tutumları nedeniyle geliştiğini vurgulamıştır. Bu vaka, 8 yıl süren tedaviden sonra yaşına uygun insan ilişkileri kurabilir hale gelmiştir.7 Ruhbilim alanında yapılan araştırmalar, insanların ruh sağlıklarını koruyabilmeleri için uyarana ihtiyaçları olduğunu gösteriyor. Psikolog Zubek, 1969 ve 1972'de Kanada'da insanlar üzerinde yaptığı deneylerde, gönüllü denekleri, fiziksel olarak rahat ama ses, ışık vb. uyaranların sınırlandığı izole ortamlarda saatlerce tutmuştur. Dayanma süreleri farklı olmakla birlikte, deneklerin çoğunda sıkıntı, huzursuzluk, kötülük göreceği korkuları, sanrılar (hezeyanlar), işitsel-görsel varsanılar (halüsinasyonlar) ortaya çıkmıştır.8 Bir başka deyişle kişi, uyarandan yoksun bırakıldığında, iç dünyasına ait uyaranları (hayaller, rüyalar, bilinçdışı süreçler vb.) dış uyaranlardan yani gerçeklikten ayırt edememekte ve gerçeklik duygusunu yitirebilmektedir.Her insan, kendinden haberdar olan, onu fark eden, etkileşebileceği diğer insan veya insanlara ihtiyaç duyar. Çünkü ancak onların bakışları, sesleri, dokunmaları ile benlik sınırları çizilir. Uzun süre insansız kalmak ben ile ben olmayan arasındaki sınırı bulanıklaştırır, benlik parçalanmasına yol açabilir. Bu parçalanmanın nasıl bir ruhsal acı verdiğinin en çarpıcı kanıtı, tecrit hücrelerindeki bazı mahkumların, işkencecilerinin bedenlerine vereceği acıları, hücrelerindeki, insansız, uyaransız kalmaya tercih etmeleridir.

40. Stress: is another important concept. When environmental stimulation exceeds an individuals adaptive resources, behavioral and health effects occur. • Stressors include: air pollution, hospitals, offices, extreme temperatures, traffic, noise, etc. • Acute stressors: negative, intense, short impacts, • Ambient stressors: negative, chronic, global conditions remaining in the background, • Daily hassles: negative, nonurgent.

41. Control Theories: • How much control we have over environmental stimulation is very important. We have more control at home, and less control outdoors such as in traffic jams. • Personal Control: accounts for the effects of being able or unable to influence stimulation. • Psychological reactance: is a result of lack of control. • Learned helplessness: is the conviction that nothing can change or overcome an unpleasant or painful situation.

42. In everyday social transactions, we attempt to achieve personal control through boundary regulation mechanisms, such as personal space and territoriality.

43. Behavior-Setting Theory • This is a concept based on Barker’s ecological psychology. It tends to explain person-environment relations in terms of the settings, social features, such as rules, customs, and typical activities, and its physical features. • Consistent, prescribed patterns of behavior called programs are found in many places. When you enter a certain space you are likely to see reccurrent activities, regularly carried out by persons holding specific roles. For example, every football game has two teams who run, pass the ball and score, and a referee. Uniformity of actions of certain roles is important.

44. Integral Theories: • A theory that searchs for a model that captures the full complexity of everyday person-environment relations. • Interactionism: People & environment are seperate entities but are in continous interaction. • Transactionism: Person & env. are inclusive, one defines the other. • Organismic: Dynamic interplay of social and individual factors. Person is affected by social env. And the society. • The Operant Approach: Its goal is to modify the behavior of individuals whose behavior is contributing to some environmental problem. Problematic behaviors are identified, appropriate positive reinforcements are delivered when individuals engage in beneficial behavior. For example recycling, littering, energy waste.

45. Environment-centered Approaches • These approaches focus on the state or quality of the environment without ignoring people. The approach may contrast instrumental versus spiritual views of the environment. • Should the environment be used to support human goals such as productivity, or is it a context in which human values are cultivated?

46. We receive information from the environment all through our lives, this affects our behaviors physically and psychologically as the brain and the body give reactions to the stimuli from the environment. These processes are concerned with perception, cognition, and cognitive maps.

47. Some related concepts • Perception: The gathering of information through our senses such as seeing, hearing, touching, etc. in order to understand the environment. It is how we make sense of the stimuli around us. The visual field is the area where objects are visually perceived, and it is limited with our ability to perceive the visual characteristics of the environment. We perceive motion, brightness, color and form. • The environment is filled with various objects that we scan and glance at. This process takes only a few seconds. Only a very small amount of written items can be read in a glance. So, information should be grouped and limited.

48. Cognition • It is the processing of the information acquired by perception through storing, organizing and recalling. • Spatial cognition is the way we acquire, store, and recall information about location, distances, and arrangements in the physical environment.

49. Environmental Cognition • It is the awareness, impressions, information, images, and beliefs that people have about environments.

50. Cognitive Maps • The representation people have of the surrounding environment is called an image or cognitive map. • A cognitive map is the mental construct of the environment seen from multiple viewpoints. It integrates parts into a whole. • The way we construct cognitive maps change individually.