Chapter Two:

1. Understanding Human Sexuality: Theory and Research Chapter Two:

2. Agenda • Distinguish Between Theory and Research • Summarize Main Points of Influential Theories • Discuss Significant Research Projects • Review Research Methodologies

3. Distinction Between Theory and Research • Theories are the intellectual structure (assumptions, principles, methods) for understanding sexuality • Research helps answer questions about human sexuality • Many disciplines conduct research in sexuality, varying in the questions asked and scientific approaches taken

4. Theories of Human Sexuality

5. Theories About Sexuality • Many theories guide our thoughts about human sexuality • Psychological • Biological • Evolutionary • Sociological • Feminist • Queer • Most theorists utilize multiple perspectives

6. Psychoanalytic Theory Behavioral Theory Social Learning Theory Cognitive Theory Humanistic Theory Psychological Theories

7. Psychological: Psychoanalytic Theory • Freud (1856-1939) • Most influential psychological theory of sexuality • Sex drive is a very important life force • Two controversial concepts: • Personality Formation • Psychosexual Development

8. Fact that Might Only Interest Me • Karen Horney was a psychoanalytic therapist who trained with Freud. • In response to Freud’s assertion that women demonstrated “penis envy”, she suggested that men had “womb envy” because they are preoccupied with sexual intercourse.

9. Psychological: Behavioral Theory • Only study overt behavior; ignore internal states • Operant conditioning (Skinner) • reinforcement • punishment • Behavior modification – tool to change unwanted behavior • Aversion therapy

10. Psychological: Social Learning Theory • Bandura • Basis in operant conditioning • Also consider internal events in affecting behavior • Identification and imitation of same-sex parent in development of our gender identity • Peer pressure influence on our sexuality

11. Psychological: Cognitive Theory • Individual differences in processing information • Behavior is a result of our perceptions and conceptualizations of our environment • Largest sex organ – the brain • We are sexually aroused by what we think is sexually arousing

12. Psychological: Humanistic Theory • Self-actualization – we try to be the best we can become • Unconditional positive regard allows us to become self-actualized

13. Biological Theory • Our sexuality is controlled by our physiology, genetics

14. Evolutionary Theory • Combination of evolution and sociology • Sexuality serves to reproduce • Primary goal is to pass on one’s genes • Double standard

15. Sociological Theory • Sexual expression varies across societies • Institutions influence rules societies hold regarding the expression of sexuality • Family • Religion • Economy • Medicine • Law • Media

16. Feminist Theory • Sexology is dominated by white, middle-class, heterosexist attitudes • Sexuality research is based on male sexuality • Social construction of sexuality based on power, historically held by men • Women as passive and submissive • Sexuality used by men to maintain power over women • Lack research on female orgasm, satisfaction

17. Queer Theory • Heterosexism and homophobia should be resisted • Heterosexism is not the norm, with all else deviant • Sexual categories are cultural constructions that limit and restrain

18. Class Exercise • Choose any topic associated with human sexuality. • How would the topic be explained from the • Psychological perspective (choose one psychological theory)? • Biological perspective? • Evolutionary perspective? • Sociological perspective? • Feminist Perspective? • Queer Perspective? • Discuss points of • Agreement • Disagreement

19. Sexuality Research

20. Recent Sexuality Research • Late 1980s, early 1990s increase in sexuality research • Prompted by HIV/AIDS • Primarily “problem-driven” research, not healthy sexuality • Pressure from conservative groups • Multiple disciplines studying sex has fragmented research

21. Recent Sexuality Research • Popular media sensationalizes and distorts information • Sexologist – researcher, educator, clinician specializing in sexuality; usually PhD • Researchers feel pressure to research select topics and avoid others • Academic programs specializing in human sexuality; need steady funding

22. Kinsey Masters & Johnson The Janus Report National Health and Social Life Survey Landmark Research

23. Kinsey: Large Scale Sexuality Research Begins in the U.S. • Most influential modern sexuality researcher • Atheoretical in the beginning because data on sexuality was lacking • He and 3 colleagues interviewed 18,000 subjects to obtain sexual life histories • Preferred use of 100% sampling • 1947, established the Institute for Sex Research

24. Kinsey: Large Scale Sexuality Research Begins in the U.S. • 1948: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male • 1953: Sexual Behavior in the Human Female • Found many unacceptable activities to be widely practiced • Controversial work; had funding sources taken away

25. Sexuality Research in the United States • Masters & Johnson: In 1954, began to study the anatomy and physiology of intercourse in the laboratory • Electrocardiograph • Electromyograph • Penile strain gauges • Photoplethysmographs

26. Sexuality Research in the United States • Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Response (1966) • Four stage model • Women may have multiple orgasms • Sexuality stays with us as we age • Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970) • Vaginal orgasms from clitoral stimulation

27. Sexuality Research in the United States: Homosexuality • Few large-scale studies • Hooker: Early 1950s; professionals could not differentiate gay and straight males • Bell & Weinberg: Homosexualities (1978) • majority of homosexual men and women do not conform to stereotypes • aren’t sexual predators • homosexuals and heterosexuals are similar in intimate relationships

28. Sexuality Research in the United States • The Janus Report (1993): large survey on sexual behavior in the U.S.; sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a random sample • National Health and Social Life Survey, Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels (1994): Surveyed a representative sample of the U.S. on sexual behaviors and attitudes

29. Class Exercise • Earlier, I noted that research is primarily “problem-driven” research, noting that there has been limited research about healthy sexuality. • Why do you think there has been more attention to problems than healthy sexuality? • Identify research topics that would be associated with “healthy sexuality.”

30. Research Methodology

31. Sex Research Methods and Considerations • Validity – measuring what it is designed to • Reliability – consistency • Generalizability/Random Samples

32. Sex Research Methods and Considerations • Case study – individual cases explored to form hypotheses • Questionnaire – self-report attitudes, behavior, knowledge • anonymity • Interview – researcher records attitudes, behavior, knowledge • rapport, flexibility, expensive

33. Sex Research Methods and Considerations • Direct Observation – focus on behaviors • difficult to find subjects in sexuality research; expensive • Participant Observation – researchers monitor within a natural environment • much sexual behavior is in private

34. Sex Research Methods and Considerations • Experimental Method – establish cause and effect due to increased control • Random assignment • Independent variable – manipulated • Dependent variable – measured • Costly, artificial, results may not relate to the real world; ethical constraints

35. Sex Research Methods and Considerations • Correlations – describes a relationship between variables • Used when experiments are not possible • Cannot establish cause and effect

36. Problems and Issues in Sex Research • Ethical Issues – informed consent, confidentiality • Volunteer Bias – there are differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers; can’t generalize • Sampling Problems – samples of convenience (college students); generalizability questioned • Reliability – changes over time; memory

37. Class Exercise • Earlier you identified topics associated with healthy sexuality. • What methodology (or multiple methodologies) would you use to study this topic? • Are there ethical problems? • How would you recruit participants?

38. Sex Research in the Future: Beyond Problem-Driven Research • Need for financial support • Congressional and religious opposition • Reliance on pharmaceutical companies for funding • “Scientific underground” • Many unexplored topics within human sexuality • Future direction to understand emotional and relational aspects