Chapter Two

1. Chapter Two Theories of Human Development Dr. Martha Pelaez

2. The Nature of Scientific Theories A scientific theory is a set of concepts and propositions that organize, describe, and explain a set of observations. A good theory must be: Parsimonious � concise, using few explanatory principles to explain a broad set of observations

3. The Nature of Scientific Theories Falsifiable � capable of making predictions about the future that can be confirmed or disconfirmed Heuristic � stimulates new research, builds on existing knowledge by generating testable hypotheses

4. Questions and Controversies about Human Development Perhaps no theoretical controversy has been more heated than the nature/nurture issue. This is the debate among developmental theorists about the relative importance of biological predispositions (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) as determinants of human development.

5. The Active/Passive Issue Are children curious/active creatures who largely determine how agents of society treat them? Or are they passive souls on whom society fixes its stamp? This is the debate among developmental theorists about whether children are active contributors to their own development or, rather, passive recipients of environmental influence.

6. The Continuity/Discontinuity Issue Continuity theorists view development as an additive process that occurs gradually and continuously without sudden changes. These theorists think that developmental changes are basically quantitative in nature. Discontinuity theorists describe the road to maturity as a series of abrupt changes, or stages. They portray development as a sequence of qualitative changes. Continuous changes are also known to be quantitative changes or changes in degree. For example, children grow taller and run a little faster with each passing year. Discontinuous changes are also viewed as qualitative changes or changes in kind that make an individual different in some ways than he/she was earlier. For example, the change in an infant who has not yet acquired language into a language user. Discontinuous theorists hold that individuals progress through developmental stages or distinct phases of life characterized by particular abilities, motives, behaviors, or emotions that form a coherent pattern. Continuous changes are also known to be quantitative changes or changes in degree. For example, children grow taller and run a little faster with each passing year. Discontinuous changes are also viewed as qualitative changes or changes in kind that make an individual different in some ways than he/she was earlier. For example, the change in an infant who has not yet acquired language into a language user. Discontinuous theorists hold that individuals progress through developmental stages or distinct phases of life characterized by particular abilities, motives, behaviors, or emotions that form a coherent pattern.

7. The Psychoanalytic Viewpoint The psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) changed our thinking about developing children. Freud believed that humans have unconscious motives that are repressed. As biological creatures, we have basic sexual and aggressive instincts that must be served. Freud uses the phrase unconscious motives to refer to feelings, experiences, and conflicts that influence a person�s thinking and behavior but lie outside a person�s awareness. Repression is a type of motivated forgetting in which anxiety-provoking thoughts and conflicts are forced out of conscious awareness. Instincts are inborn biological forces that motivate a particular response or class of responses.Freud uses the phrase unconscious motives to refer to feelings, experiences, and conflicts that influence a person�s thinking and behavior but lie outside a person�s awareness. Repression is a type of motivated forgetting in which anxiety-provoking thoughts and conflicts are forced out of conscious awareness. Instincts are inborn biological forces that motivate a particular response or class of responses.

8. Psychosexual Theory Freud�s psychosexual theory states that maturation of the sex instinct underlies stages of personality development and that the manner in which parents manage their children�s instinctual impulses determines the traits that children display.

9. Components of Personality Freud�s theory specifies that three components of personality develop and gradually become integrated in a series of five stages. The id is all that is present at birth. Its sole function is to satisfy inborn biological instincts immediately. The ego is the conscious, rational component that reflects the child�s emerging abilities to perceive, learn, remember and reason. The superego arises between the ages of 3 and 6 and is the seat of the conscience.

10. Freud�s Stages of Psychosexual Development Freud thought that sex was the most important instinct and that mental disturbances often revolved around unresolved childhood sexual conflicts. If parents permitted too much or too little gratification of sexual needs during a stage, a child could become obsessed or fixated on that stage resulting in arrested development.

11. Freud�s Stages of Psychosexual Development Oral (Birth to 1 year): The sex instinct centers on the mouth because infants derive pleasure from oral activities. Anal (1 to 3 years): Voluntary urination and defecation become the primary methods of gratifying the sex instinct. Phallic (3 to 6 years): Pleasure is now derived from genital stimulation. Latency (6 to 11 years): Traumas of the phallic stage cause sexual conflicts to be repressed and sexual urges to be rechanneled into school work and play. Genital (age 12 onward): Puberty retriggers sexual urges. Adolescents must learn how to express these urges in socially acceptable ways.

12. Erikson�s Theory of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson (1902-1994) revised Freud�s theory to emphasize sociocultural (rather than sexual) determinants of development. Erikson developed the psychosocial theory, which stated that individuals faced eight major crises or conflicts during the course of their life.

13. Erikson�s Theory of Psychosocial Development Each crisis had to be successfully resolved in order to advance to the next life crisis. The crises span from birth until old age and begin with basic trust versus mistrust and end with ego integrity versus despair.

15. The Learning Viewpoint John B. Watson (1878-1958) is considered the father of a school of thought known as behaviorism. The behavioral viewpoint holds that conclusions about human development should be based on controlled observations of overt behavior (habits) rather than speculation about unconscious motives or other unobservable phenomena. Like John Locke, Watson viewed the infant as a tabula rosa to be written on by experience. Habits are well-learned associations between stimuli and responses that represent the stable aspects of one�s personalityHabits are well-learned associations between stimuli and responses that represent the stable aspects of one�s personality

16. Skinner�s Operant-Learning Theory Skinner (1953) proposed that both animals and humans repeat acts that lead to favorable outcomes and suppress those that produce unfavorable outcomes. In other words, behavior is guided by reinforcers and punishers. According to Skinner, habits develop as a result of unique operant learning experiences. A reinforcer is any consequence of an act that increases the probability that the act will recur. A punisher is any consequence of a behavior that suppresses it or decreases the likelihood that it will recur. Operant Learning is a form of learning in which voluntary acts (or operants) become either more or less probable, depending on the consequences they produce. A reinforcer is any consequence of an act that increases the probability that the act will recur. A punisher is any consequence of a behavior that suppresses it or decreases the likelihood that it will recur. Operant Learning is a form of learning in which voluntary acts (or operants) become either more or less probable, depending on the consequences they produce.

17. Bandura�s Cognitive Social-Learning Theory Bandura emphasized the cognitive aspects of learning in his social-learning theory. He highlighted observational learning as a central developmental process. Bandura proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism to describe human development as an interaction among an �active� person (P), the person�s behavior (B), and the environment (E). Observational learning is simply learning that results from observing the behavior of other people (called models). Reciprocal determinism suggests that the links among persons, behaviors, and environments are bidirectional. In other words, the environment may affect the child, but the child�s behavior also influences the environment. Observational learning is simply learning that results from observing the behavior of other people (called models). Reciprocal determinism suggests that the links among persons, behaviors, and environments are bidirectional. In other words, the environment may affect the child, but the child�s behavior also influences the environment.

18. The Cognitive-Developmental Viewpoint The cognitive-developmental viewpoint of Jean Piaget depicts children as active explorers who construct cognitive schemes, through the process of assimilation and accommodation that enable them to resolve disequilibriums. Piaget described cognitive development as an invariant developmental sequence of four stages. That is, all children progress through the stages in exactly the order in which they are listed. A scheme is an organized pattern of thought that a child constructs to make sense of some aspect of his or her experience. Assimilation occurs when a child interprets new experiences by incorporating them into their existing schemes. Accommodation is Piaget�s term for the process by which children modify their existing schemes in order to incorporate or adapt new experiences. Disequilibriums are imbalances or contradictions between one�s thought processes and environmental events. A scheme is an organized pattern of thought that a child constructs to make sense of some aspect of his or her experience. Assimilation occurs when a child interprets new experiences by incorporating them into their existing schemes. Accommodation is Piaget�s term for the process by which children modify their existing schemes in order to incorporate or adapt new experiences. Disequilibriums are imbalances or contradictions between one�s thought processes and environmental events.

20. Other Cognitive-Developmental Viewpoints Unlike Piaget, Lev Vygotsky�s sociocultural theory argues that cognitive growth is largely a socially-mediated activity, heavily influenced by culture. Information-processing theory views the mind as a complex symbol-manipulating system in which information flows, is operated on, and is converted to output (answers, inferences, and solutions to problems).

21. The Ethological or Evolutionary Viewpoint As expressed in ethology, the evolutionary viewpoint suggests that humans are born with numerous adaptive attributes that have evolved through natural selection. The cry of an infant is thought to be a biologically programmed distress signal that attracts the attention of caregivers. Ethologists recognize that humans are influenced by their experiences and claim that adaptive characteristics are most likely to develop during sensitive periods. Ethology is the study of the bioevolutionary bases of behavior and development. Natural selection is an evolutionary process proposed by Darwin. It states that individuals with characteristics that promote adaptation to the environment will survive, reproduce, and pass these adaptive characteristics to offspring.However, those lacking these adaptive characteristics will eventually die out. A sensitive period refers to a time that is optimal for the emergence of particular competencies or behaviors in which the individual is particularly sensitive to environmental influences. Ethology is the study of the bioevolutionary bases of behavior and development. Natural selection is an evolutionary process proposed by Darwin. It states that individuals with characteristics that promote adaptation to the environment will survive, reproduce, and pass these adaptive characteristics to offspring.However, those lacking these adaptive characteristics will eventually die out. A sensitive period refers to a time that is optimal for the emergence of particular competencies or behaviors in which the individual is particularly sensitive to environmental influences.

22. The Ecological Systems Viewpoint Urie Brofenbrenner�s ecological systems theory views development as the product of transactions between an ever-changing person and an ever-changing environment. He proposes that the environment consists of interacting contexts or systems�microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem�each of which is also influence by the chronosystem.

23. Brofenbrenner�s Contexts for Development The innermost environmental layer, or microsystem, refers to the activities and interactions that occur in the person�s immediate surroundings. The mesosystem is the second layer, and refers to the interconnections among individual�s immediate settings or microsystems. The exosystem, or third environmental layer, consists of contexts that children and adolescents are not a part of but which may influence their development.

24. Brofenbrenner�s Contexts for Development The macrosystem is the larger cultural or subcultural context in which development occurs. It is the outermost environmental layer. According to Brofenbrenner, each of these interacting context is also influenced by the chronosystem, or the changes that occur over time in the individual or in other environmental contexts.

25. Worldviews The mechanistic model compares humans to machines by viewing them as a collection of parts, passive, and gradually changing. The organismic model compares humans to other living organisms viewing them as whole beings that cannot be separated into their parts, active, and evolving through distinct stages.

26. Worldviews The contextual model, which has recently emerged, views development as a dynamic process between nature and nurture. Today many developmentalists are eclectics, borrowing from many theories.