The Cold War in Asia (excluding Vietnam after 1954), 1946-75

1. Young & Kent: International Relations since 1945 The Cold War in Asia (excluding Vietnam after 1954), 1946-75 Empire and its aftermath

2. Indian independence as Cold War threats in Europe develop 1947- 48 • The nature of the Cold War’s links with the decolonization process - the economic and political impact of the Second World War on Asia • The road to India’s achievement of independence - the role of Attlee and the disagreements over the Indian transfer of power in London - Indian nationalism and Hindu/Muslim tensions - internationalism and Empire in respect of increasing Cold War tensions - Mountbatten’s influence on the acceleration of the transfer of power

3. The Cold War and decolonization in Ceylon and Burma 1947-50 • Cold War and the need for moderate nationalists in independent Sri Lanka - British policy in 1947 and its impact on the timing of independence in 1948 • Wartime legacies and the shift to Cold War priorities in Burma - the nature of Burmese opposition to British rule - the roles of Aung San and U Nu - the Cold War and the socio-economic order in Burma • Independence in 1949 and the Burmese refusal to join the Commonwealth

4. The Cold War in French Indo-China 1946-49 • Vietnamese society at the end of World War II: - peasants and plantations - the political effect of socio-economic conditions - Ho Chi Minh and nationalism • The Japanese departure and the nationalist arrival in Hanoi - the roles of the Americans, British and Free French in the rejection of the new Vietnamese government • The creation of the French Union and the start of the war in 1946 - the French Union, its overseas territories, associated states and Indo-China - the failure of the Fontainebleu talks on Indo-China’s position - the French attack on Haiphong • The impact of the Cold War - communism and nationalism - the return of Bao Dai 1949

5. Cold War in Vietnam: US aid and French defeat 1949 - 54 • Truman and US aid - the Korean War and the commencement of significant aid • Dulles and maintaining the French Empire in the Cold War - the growing propaganda disadvantages of Empire - the disagreements with Britain about assisting the French militarily - the issue of reforming the French Union • The Geneva Conference 1954 - Eden’s disagreement with, and independence of, Dulles - the agreement on elections for a united Vietnam and the American refusal to accept it • The lessons of the French defeat at Dienbienphu

6. Post-colonial instability in South East Asia in the 1960s • Laos: - Washington and the Royal Lao Army v Hanoi and the Pathet Lao - Souvanna Phouma and Phoumi rivalry - Greater North Vietnamese involvement and Soviet aid by 1961 - the right-neutral-left division in Laos - Kennedy’s 1961 acceptance at the Khrushchev Vienna meeting of the neutralisation of Laos - US reconciliation with the Souvanna Phouma government and the agreement at the reconvened Geneva Conference 1962 • Burma: - Ne Whin and isolationism • Indonesia: - Sukarno, non alignment and anti-colonialism post-Bandung

7. The Malaysian issues and the British desire for the Federation • The ethnic and political status of the states of Singapore, Malaya, Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei and Malaya • The British desire to create Malaysia to solve the Singapore problem • The Singapore problem after the achievement of internal self-government Singapore’s independence – British requirements: - the Singapore base for a continued East of Suez presence - the retention of the Singapore base with reduced cost to London - the avoidance of Chinese radicalism in Singapore through the more conservative Malays - a Malayan minority - only avoided by combining Malaya, and the North Borneo territories (Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah) with Singapore

8. The support for Malaysia within the region • Support in Singapore - PM Lee Kwan Yew saw it as facilitating independence • Support in Kuala Lumpur -PM Tunku Abdul Rahman saw it as increasing Malayan influence • British commission reported 1962 that the dependent Borneo territories were in favour • Malaya-Singapore agreed August 1961 on Malaysia’s establishment in 1963

9. Opposition to Malaysia and the Indonesian ‘Confrontation’ • Opposition in Manila - Philippine claims on Borneo territories • Opposition in Jakarta - from Sukarno’s anti-colonialism and the invasion of Dutch West Irian 1961 - from the PKI opposition communist party - from doubts over Borneo’s ability to exercise self- determination properly through a British commission • Launch of ‘Konfrontasi’ (Confrontation) January 1963 - Propaganda against Malaysia - Guerilla raids on Malaysia’s creation September 1963 - British troops deployed and from 1965 Australian SAS in cross border incursions and British intelligence covert operations

10. Cold War Indonesia and the Konfrontasi settlement 1966-7 • Sukarno identified as US ally in communist struggle and initially received aid 1963 • UN involvement 1963 - UN assessment of opinion in Borneo favoured the British position over the acceptance of Malaysia • Talks on Maphilindo federation of Malaya, Indonesia and the Philippines 1963 • Singapore independence in 1965 - removed important British aim regarding the base - reduced Malay enthusiasm • Growing American disillusionment with Sukarno 1965 • American support for General Suharto in the Sept 1965 murder of pro-communist senior military officers weakened the Indonesian leader’s position and removed the communist threat • End of Konfrontasi 1966 and formation of ASEAN 1967

11. The Indo-Pakistan War 1965 • Cold War Soth Asian effects in the early 1960s - Kennedy more prepared to court India - General Ayub Khan fearful of over reliance on America • Sino-Indian war 1962 - cemented closer Chinese relations with Pakistan - impact on Indo-Pakistani dispute over Kashmir - India felt less secure - US disturbed by Ayub Khan’s better relations with China • Increased instability from within the region 1965 -Washington seemed less able to control the regional situation through a ‘reliable ally’ - Rann of Kutch and growing tensions over Kashmir - August-September Indo-Pakistani war • Consequences of the War -US Cold War setback - greater Soviet role in brokering the settlement - closer Soviet-Indian links - growing importance of China - no settlement to the inherent instability produced by the Kashmir problem - bankruptcy of President Johnson’s regional policy

12. The Indo-Pakistan War 1971 • Regional situation in 1970 - resentment in the East at the West’s economic domination and pre-occupation with Kashmir - 1970 earthquake • The December 1970 elections - conflicting aims of Bhutto in the West and Rahmann in the East over more or less centralization in Pakistan - parliament suspended and the East (Bangladesh) claimed independence • The run up to war - Rahmann imprisoned and martial law produced armed resistance - flight of refugees justified India’s claim to be involved in a solution to the problem through Bangladesh independence -November border incidents produced disagreement over who started the conflict • Kissinger’s Cold War interpretation of the conflict and US tilt to Pakistan - the perception of the global dynamics of the Soviet rivalry - US interests in detente required an approach to China through Pakistan - Pakistan history of alignment with US - external Indian involvement seen as unconducive to the containment of conflict in the less developed world