Fundamentals of Atomic Theory and Matter Conservation

1. Chapter 2Atoms, Molecules and Ions

2. Atomic Theory of Matter

3. Law of Conservation of Mass The total mass of substances present at the end of a chemical process is the same as the mass of substances present before the process took place.

4. Law of Definite ( or constant ) composition No matter what its source, a particular chemical compound is composed of the same elements in the same proportions by mass.

5. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS If two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers. Carbon monoxide 1.00 g C to 1.33 g O Carbon dioxide 1.00 g C to 2.66 g O

6. The Electron • Streams of negatively charged particles were found to emanate from cathode tubes, causing fluorescence. • J. J. Thomson is credited with their discovery (1897).

7. The Electron Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of the electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/gram (C/g).

8. Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment Once the charge/mass ratio of the electron was known, determination of either the charge or the mass of an electron would yield the other. Robert Millikan (University of Chicago) determined the charge on the electron in 1909.

9. Radioactivity • Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation by an atom. • It was first observed by Henri Becquerel. • Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.

10. Radioactivity • Three types of radiation were discovered by Ernest Rutherford: •  particles •  particles •  rays

11. The Atom, circa 1900 • The prevailing theory was that of the “plum pudding” model, put forward by Thomson. • It featured a positive sphere of matter with negative electrons imbedded in it.

12. Discovery of the Nucleus Ernest Rutherford shot  particles at a thin sheet of gold foil and observed the pattern of scatter of the particles.

13. The Nuclear Atom Since some particles were deflected at large angles, Thomson’s model could not be correct.

14. The Nuclear Atom • Rutherford postulated a very small, dense nucleus with the electrons around the outside of the atom. • Most of the volume of the atom is empty space.

15. Other Subatomic Particles • Protons were discovered by Rutherford in 1919. • Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.

16. Subatomic Particles • Protons and electrons are the only particles that have a charge. • Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass. • The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.

17. Symbols of Elements Elements are symbolized by one or two letters.

18. Symbols of Elements All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, which is called the atomic number, Z.

19. Symbols of Elements The mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atom.

20. A X Mass Number Element Symbol Z Atomic Number 1 3 2 H (D) H (T) H 1 1 1 235 238 U U 92 92 Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

21. Isotopes • Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses. • Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.

22. ? ? How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 14 11 C C 6 6 Do You Understand Isotopes? 6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons 6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

23. Atomic Mass Atomic and molecular masses can be measured with great accuracy using a mass spectrometer.

24. Average Mass • Because in the real world we use large amounts of atoms and molecules, we use average masses in calculations. • Average mass is calculated from the isotopes of an element weighted by their relative abundances.

25. Sample Exercise 2.4 Calculating the Atomic Weight of an Element from Isotopic Abundances Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78% 35Cl (atomic mass 34.969 amu) and 24.22% 37Cl (atomic mass 36.966 amu).Calculate the atomic weight of chlorine. Solution We can calculate the atomic weight by multiplying the abundance of each isotope by its atomic mass and summing these products. Because 75.78% = 0.7578 and 24.22% = 0.2422, we have Atomic weight = (0.7578)(34.969 amu) + (0.2422)(36.966 amu) = 26.50 amu + 8.953 amu = 35.45 amu This answer makes sense: The atomic weight, which is actually the average atomic mass, is between the masses of the two isotopes and is closer to the value of 35Cl, the more abundant isotope. Practice Exercise Three isotopes of silicon occur in nature: 28Si (92.23%), atomic mass 27.97693 amu; 29Si (4.68% ), atomic mass 28.97649 amu; and 30Si (3.09%), atomic mass 29.97377 amu. Calculate the atomic weight of silicon. Answer: 28.09 amu

26. Periodic Table • The periodic table is a systematic catalog of the elements. • Elements are arranged in order of atomic number.

27. Periodic Table • The rows on the periodic chart are periods. • Columns are groups. • Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

28. Periodicity When one looks at the chemical properties of elements, one notices a repeating pattern of reactivities.

29. Groups These five groups are known by their names.

30. Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table (with the exception of H). • Metalloids border the stair-step line (with the exception of Al, Po, and At • Metals are on the left side of the chart.

31. Chemical Formulas • The subscript to the right of the symbol of an element tells the number of atoms of that element in one molecule of the compound. • Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only nonmetals.

32. Diatomic Molecules • These seven elements occur naturally as molecules containing two atoms: • Hydrogen • Nitrogen • Oxygen • Fluorine • Chlorine • Bromine • Iodine

33. Types of Formulas • Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound. • Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound. • Structural formulas show the order in which atoms are bonded. • Perspective drawings also show the three-dimensional array of atoms in a compound.

34. molecular empirical H2O H2O C6H12O6 CH2O O3 O NH2 N2H4

36. Ions • When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions. • Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left side of the periodic chart. • Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right side of the periodic chart.

37. 11 protons 11 electrons 11 protons 10 electrons Na+ Na 17 protons 18 electrons 17 protons 17 electrons Cl- Cl An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or negative charge. cation – ion with a positive charge If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a cation. anion – ion with a negative charge If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons it becomes an anion.

38. 27 3+ Al ? How many protons and electrons are in 13 ? 78 2- How many protons and electrons are in Se 34 Do You Understand Ions? 13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons 34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons

39. Sample Exercise 2.7 Writing Chemical Symbols for Ions Give the chemical symbol, including superscript indicating mass number, for (a) the ion with 22 protons, 26 neutrons, and 19 electrons; (b) the ion of sulfur that has 16 neutrons and 18 electrons. Solution (a) The number of protons is the atomic number of the element. A periodic table or list of elements tells us that the element with atomic number 22 is titanium (Ti). The mass number (protons plus neutrons) of this isotope of titanium is 22 + 26 = 48. Because the ion has three more protons than electrons, it has a net charge of 3+: 48Ti3+. (b) The periodic table tells us that sulfur (S) has an atomic number of 16. Thus, each atom or ion of sulfur contains 16 protons. We are told that the ion also has 16 neutrons, meaning the mass number is 16 + 16 = 32. Because the ion has 16 protons and 18 electrons, its net charge is 2– and the ion symbol is 32S2–. In general, we will focus on the net charges of ions and ignore their mass numbers unless the circumstances dictate that we specify a certain isotope. Practice Exercise How many protons, neutrons, and electrons does the 79Se2– ion possess? Answer: 34 protons, 45 neutrons, and 36 electrons

40. Ionic Bonds Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally formed between metals and nonmetals.

41. Sample Exercise 2.9 Identifying Ionic and Molecular Compounds Which of these compounds would you expect to be ionic: N2O, Na2O, CaCl2, SF4? Solution We predict that Na2O and CaCl2 are ionic compounds because they are composed of a metal combined with a nonmetal. We predict (correctly) that N2O and SF4 are molecular compounds because they are composed entirely of nonmetals. Practice Exercise Which of these compounds are molecular: CBr4, FeS, P4O6, PbF2? Answer: CBr4 and P4O6

42. Writing Formulas • Because compounds are electrically neutral, one can determine the formula of a compound this way: • The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion. • The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the cation. • If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-number ratio, divide them by the greatest common factor.

43. ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations and an anions • they only have empirical formulas, no molecular formula • the sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each formula unit must equal zero The ionic compound NaCl

44. 2 x +3 = +6 1 x +2 = +2 1 x +2 = +2 3 x -2 = -6 2 x -1 = -2 1 x -2 = -2 Formula of Ionic Compounds Al2O3 Al3+ O2- CaBr2 Ca2+ Br- Na2CO3 Na+ CO32-

45. Common Cations

46. Common Anions

47. Inorganic Nomenclature • Write the name of the cation. • If the anion is an element, change its ending to -ide; if the anion is a polyatomic ion, simply write the name of the polyatomic ion. • If the cation can have more than one possible charge, write the charge as a Roman numeral in parentheses.

48. Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature • When there are two oxyanions involving the same element: • The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite. • The one with more oxygens ends in -ate. • NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite • NO3− : nitrate; SO42− : sulfate

49. Central atoms on the second row have bond to at most three oxygens; those on the third row take up to four. • Charges increase as you go from right to left.

50. The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite. • ClO2− : chlorite • The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate. • ClO3− : chlorate