Western Society and Eastern Europe in the Decades of the Cold War

1. Western Society and Eastern Europe in the Decades of the Cold War

2. 50% of all deaths came from noncombatants -50 million died Populations were terrorized beyond measure during WWII by both Allies and Axis powers From WWII emerged mass rapes. Soviets used sexual violence against German women and girls as they advanced into Germany Many of these women were capture, repeatedly rape (sometimes 20-40 times a day) then sent to work in Russian Gulags Germans also used female slave labor…Block 24, just beside the main gate of Auschwitz, became a brothel for German soldiers as well as their best workers “I consider it necessary to provide in the most liberal way hard-working prisoners with women in brothels.”– Heinrich Himmler, SS 1943 Dr. Josef Mengele, an SS physician, arrived at Auschwitz. He conducted atrocious experiments on women, children, twins, infants, and others Japan and comfort women Civilian Populations

3. What do we do now? • The big three would decide (U.S., Great Britain, and Soviet Union) the future of Europe • Met during war to discuss: 1943-Teheran, 1945-Yalta, 1945-Potsdam (governments of Germany and Japan restructured, disarmament, war crime trials) • Germany split between four zones • Japan emperor stepped down and U.S. installed democracy • Nuremberg Trials 1945-1949: set of trials of officials involved in WWII and the Holocaust. Trials were held in Nuremberg, Germany and the more famous of these was the Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (IMT) which tried 24 of the most important/captured leaders of Nazi Germany • The second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT), including the famous Doctors' Trial.

4. Introduction • A developing “world opinion” against nuclear weapons testing. US, Soviets, French, and British were conducting above ground nuclear tests. People from around the world, especially the Japanese, opposed the testing and felt that it could harm and threatened peoples lives. • 1958 President Eisenhower established a testing moratorium (halt) and a test ban treaty was established by 1963. • US became increasingly involved in world affairs after WWII • Western Europe became increasingly democratic with rising consumer prosperity while Eastern Europe was controlled by the Soviets.

5. WWII left Europe in ruins and the Cold War threatened to finish the job of destruction War reduced European population, destroyed industry, created millions of displaced peoples, housing shortages, agricultural shortages, and no internal sources of capital for rebuilding European economies depended on capital from abroad The U.S. and Soviet Union provided solutions to these economic problems Soviets: recovered its sizable economic losses by territorial gains in Eastern Europe Economic Challenges

6. Europe and its Colonies The Cold War Between the US and the Soviet Union (1945-47 began) After war-vague boundaries so Soviet troops started occupying most eastern European countries and quickly installed communistic governments loyal to the USSR. It was called the “Eastern Block”: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary. Soon Baltic states disappeared (reversed Treaty of Versailles) Soviets also occupied part of Germany (Eastern Block) Offended by USSR’s heavy handed manipulation of the Eastern Block including eastern Germany, the US and British countered with rivalry. US-new president (Truman), the nuclear bomb, and feared communist aggression felt Iron Curtain- divided Europe between free and repressed societies • Decolonization-much of the time it was smooth and fairly peaceful • Exception-pretty much everything involving France-Vietnam (1954) and Algeria(1962) • Exceptions to peaceful transition: Kenya, Vietnam, and Algeria • Colonies still held onto cultural elements of old mother countries and even sometimes the mother country provided administrative and military help (France Belgium). • And of course, Western interested economically remained the same-wanted to continue to exploit mineral and agricultural resources • 1956 Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal under efforts by Britain and France to attack the independent nation • The West no longer dominated and controlled the world!

7. Cold War • Marshall Plan (1947):US started giving loans to postwar nations desperate for aid-of course influencing them to stay capitalistic and democratic-aimed to defeat communist movements in western Europe. • Early stages of Cold War over Germany-By 1946 US, F, and B started to collaborate on an effort to rebuild Germany politically and economically. • In 1947 created a stable currency to aid in this recovery the Soviets responded with a blockade in Berlin. US-massive airlifts to supply the city. In 1948 blockade ended and Germany became 2 separate blocks (East and West) • NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) formed in 1949 was an alliance (western Europe, Canada, under US leadership) to check possible Soviet aggression. (SEATO and CENTO too) • Rearmament in western Germany to withstand communism and had allied soldier presence • Warsaw Pact 1955-Eastern European satellites • 1949 Soviets developed nuclear capability! • US more involved in Western European politics-provided much needed economic aid while Soviets funded and supported communist movements in Western Europe • Center of cold war conflict shifted from Europe to Korea, Vietnam, Middle East, and Latin America • US became the major peacetime military power

8. U.S sought to establish new markets in both Europe and Japan U.S. acted to restore economies as potential consumers of American goods Truman Doctrine: American aid would be forthcoming to nations resistant to Communism and also to places like Russia upon guidelines: cooperation and open trade Soviets of course opposed plan and saw it as the U.S.’ attempt to spread capitalism Marshall Plan: U.S. plan to restore economies: regulation and state intervention of economies Office of European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) coordinated the Marshall Plan Marshall Plan began the process of economic integration in Europe (economic alliances) Benelux, France, Italy, West Germany formed European Coal and Steel Community that established a common market for coal and steel among member countries Later created the European Economic Community known as the Common Market in 1958 Great Britain joined the EEC in 1973 Japan: U.S supported economy by rapidly modernizing its industries. Without military budget capital was directed into industries…By 1960 Japan was an industrial giant U.S. Solution

9. The plan was in operation for four years beginning in July 1947. During that period some $13 billion of economic and technical assistance — equivalent to around $130 billion in 2006, when adjusted for inflation, was given to help the recovery of the European countries which had joined in the Organization for European Economic Cooperation By the time the plan had come to completion, the economy of every participant state had grown well past prewar levels Marshall Plan was also one of the first elements of European integration, as it erased tariff trade barriers and set up institutions to coordinate the economy on a continental level Marshall Plan

10. Spread of Liberal Democracy • Fascism and other rightist movements were on the losing side of WWII and as such they became discredited after the war. This allowed for increasing acceptance of parliamentary democracy. More support for government planning and welfare activities. • New governments in Germany (divided-west Germany =Federal Republic of Germany). A new constitution was created that banned extremist political movements. • Italy: established a constitutional democracy • Even France established a new republic once German occupation ended • Portugal and Spain in the 1970s moved from authoritarian, semi-fascist to democratic parliamentary rule • Western Europe increasingly become more and more politically uniform

11. After WWII states formed welfare programs to provide support for citizens, particularly children and families Tried to resolve economic issues surrounding birth, sickness, old age, and unemployment Welfare states did not treat all of their members equally (women) Per capital income was on the rise throughout all of western Europe Welfare programs provided security for using disposable wealth New consumption: T.V., cars, refrigerators, washing machines, liquor, and vacations However, wealth was not redistributed…still remained in the hands of few Creating the Welfare State

12. New Challenges to Political Stability • Not everything could be handled through the parliamentary system-for example: Civil Rights (African-Americans and other minorities), Vietnam war, materialism, and student rights. Many times there were riots and violence associated with these stands. Things got better in the US after the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964. • Feminism and women’s economic rights • Green movement-environmentally aware • Couple this with slow economic growth led to new parties taking power • British Conservative party and in the US, the Republican party promised to reduce costs and coverage of the welfare state (does this sound like today?) • 2 main figures tried to reduce the welfare state: Margaret Thatcher (prime minister of GB) and Ronald Reagan (US president)

13. Diplomatic Context • Problem in democracies has always been nationalistic rivalry. After war there was plea for harmony and for European states to work together as opposed to against one another (Christian Democratic party). • 1947 US led recovery of Western Europe-Marshall Plan and the US wanted German rearmament and participation in NATO • How do you allow Germany grow, but no overwhelm? • Tie German economics to internat. framework to keep peace • Institution established to link policies across Europe-faster growth • 1958 Western Europe (west Germany, F, I, Belgium, L, and Netherlands) set up the European Economic Community or Common Market…later called the European Union. It was to create a single economic entity across national political boundaries. • Tariffs reduced then eliminated in European Union countries, single currency 2001 (euro), and overall much growth

14. Economic Expansion • Time of large economic growth! Welfare state and European Union assisted in this growth. • Better farming productivity and techniques = more exports, textiles and metallurgical products increased, and consumer products (car/appliances) increased too • National product surpassed rates since Industrial Revolution and also surpassed the US economy • Technology was the backbone to this growth-with less people did more work! More people started working in “leisure industry” –teachers, bank, medical etc. • Immigration-needed more workers and many immigrated from other parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. • Unprecedented economic growth and low unemployment = more $ =people bought consumer goods (affluent society in Western society developed) • TV, cars, shopping malls, supermarkets, vacations • Was this good for all? Guest workers

15. Former Dominions • Canada-became a welfare state and had nationalized health care • Relationship with US-US invested and traded • 1988 North American Free Trade Agreement-between Canada and US • Started to stand on their own and develop and Canadian identity • Quebec question-French independence • After WWII Australia and New Zealand moved beyond British influence. In 1951 Defense Pact with US against communism in the Pacific-backed US in Korea and Vietnam wars • 80s both began distancing itself from US policies • Great Britain aligned with European Union-free colonies created their own alliances. • Australia-high Asian immigration

16. U.S. Century? • US =defender of capitalism and democracy • British couldn’t police the world and Soviets quick growth into Eastern Europe caused U.S. to step up (Truman Doctrine-support for those against communism: directed at Greece and Turkey) • Cold War brought about in US fear-you could lose your job if you were suspected of being a communist. (conspiracies and spies-time of McCarthyism) • Direct confrontation in Korea between Communist China support North Korea and the U.S. supporting South Korea • After 3 years of warfare, Korea was permanently divided in 1953 • US alliances-U.S. alliances: NATO, SEATO (southeast Asia Treaty Organization), & CENTO (Central Treaty Organization-Middle E)

17. Middle East: oil Both Soviets and U.S. fought for oil control U.S killed leader of Iran and put a puppet government in place Egypt and Syria looked toward Soviets-nationalized Suez Canal Creation of the state of Israel in 1948 destabilized Middle East-Western aid Latin America: U.S. acted to prevent spread of communism with heavy-handed policies…caused anti-Americanism Erupted in Cuba with the successful communist revolution led by Fidel Castro in 1959 Cuban Missile Crisis 1962: USSR and U.S. threatening war over the existence of missiles in Cuba.. Threat passed when Khrushchev order the dismantling of missile bases Cold War

19. Vietnam War • US developed a containment policy to communism-contain growth. Considered communism to have a domino effect-wanted to see it contained! • So US basically got involved anywhere there was a communist threat like Korea and Vietnam  • In 1965 US began bombing communist North Vietnam and later US troops sent in • US spend 2 billion dollars a week on the war that produced no results • By 1970 more bombs dropped on Vietnam than anyone else anywhere in the world in the entire 20th century??? • Pressures from home-many protests • Nixon tried to put more pressure on Vietnam, but by 1973 both agreed to a cease-fire. 1975 war ended and Vietnam was in communist hands (Ho Chi Minh-Wilson) • US continued: Reagan-Middle East and terrorism and weapons, Bush-1st Gulf War (1991-Iraq), and Clinton in Kosovo.

20. Social Structure Women’s Revolution Women went to work in very large numbers-44% by the 70s. Mostly entry level jobs and were paid less then men. Women gained right to vote-F/S Women gained more education-still male dominated fields (s) Divorces increased Birth control (pill) and abortion After WWII surge in births followed by a rapid decline-more stuff you can buy with less kids! Family pressures led to more divorces New Feminism-economic gap, focus on what women want, family less important and seen even as repressive • Economic growth eased social conflicts as the standard of living increased for almost all. Social mobility increased and education became its tool for improvement. Size of peasantry cut while much unskilled work went to immigrants. • Class distinctions remained and crime went up in Western societies. US also had racial riots and civil rights issues to deal with.

21. Bernard Buffet, Portrait de Maurice Combe, 1950, (c)Adagp, Western Culture • Shift towards US as center of Western culture • US had $ after WWII and many intellectuals immigrated here to work. Francis Crick (B) and James Watson (US) DNA. • New York replaced Paris as art center. Return to “modern” style seen prior to WWI (non representational techniques). Became increasingly accepted. Some artists even used popular items in their art. • Artistic film-Europe • Social Science changed-studied data –looked at cycles. Developed Social history! Bernard Buffet paintings

22. Popular Culture • US pop culture influenced western culture-Hollywood, coca-cola, jeans, gum, shaving, tv series. All this came to represent US to Europeans and others. • British-popular music groups like the Beatles • Interesting styles-punk • Sex=personal pleasure and tv relaxed its standards and shops developed • Sexual behavior changed as pre-marital sex became more common and age decreased. Cast of Dallas

23. Stalin was able to make the USSR into an industrial giant: steel, coal, and crude oil Post WWII, USSR also began to developed a nuclear arsenal and space exploration program…very expensive Able to achieve this by maintaining a war economy USSR citizens did not enjoy a consumer revolution Russian standard of living remained relatively low The nature of the planned Soviet economy, which focused on heavy industrial expansion, was at a cost to agriculture and consumer durables Although industrial output was significant, collectivization and high defense expenditures led to much social unrest Eastern Bloc and Recovery

24. Soviet Union • Foreign policy directed by the aims to regain lands, expand lands, active role in diplomacy, and create a buffer to protect itself. • Focus on heavy industry and weapons developments • Warsaw Pact • Soviets seized some islands north of Japan, protectorate of North Korea, aided China in becoming communist, and allied with Vietnam. • They got more military bases • By 1949 it was a world power • Soviets kept pushing west after WWII and were unwilling to relax its grip on Eastern Europe. Small countries -new or revived and were weak. Taken over by Nazis for years. Democratic government failed. • Dominant force in EE was Soviet army. They worked with local communist movements. By 1948 opposition parties crushed. • (exceptions: Greece/ Yugoslavia)

25. Soviet Union • Soviet and east European trade zones separated from international commerce • Soldiers stationed in eastern European countries to keep out west and keep communism • In 1953 Stalin died leaving a struggle for power in the Communist party: Nikita Khrushchev became premier in 1958 –ousted in 1964 • He denounced Stalin and many felt reforms were sure to come and began movements in homelands. They were repressed with violence by the Russian military • East Berlin posed problems for communist rule due to the western portion having better living conditions. Many would immigrate over to the west • In 1961 Soviets responded to this problem by constructing the Berlin Wall. It was heavily policed and violence was used to maintain control • Berlin wall symbolized the divide in during the Cold War • Soviets did allow for some more popular leaders to take power (Poland). Halted collectivism and moved towards ownership of land and Catholic Church allowed back in. • New regime in Hungary crushed

26. Soviet Union • Prague Spring: 1968 reform movement in Czechoslovakia which had a goal of bringing about a more humanistic socialism with limits (such as remaining in the Soviet Bloc)-violently repressed by Soviets • Poland 1970s Solidarity movement-Polish army took over state under Soviet supervision. • Eastern Europe changed due to communism: classes, education, industry, and collectivization. • Soviets got-protection against Germany, allies to help them, an supplies • Soviets maintained war economy! • Fear of the US and its distorted society caused many Russians to support a continued strong government presence-allowing for rapid postwar recovery. • Stalin tried to keep contact with foreigners limited-limits on travel and media. • Government-importance of bureaucracy: ed., welfare, police • Education allowed talented people to rise up to work for government. • New candidates had to be nominated by 3 party members and membership was very low

27. Soviet Culture: Promoting New Beliefs and Institutions • Soviet government was successful at created direct loyalties with citizens due to its cultural agenda. Regime declared war on Orthodox Church and other religions soon after 1917 b/c it wanted a secular population loyal to Marxism and a scientific orthodoxy. Church did remain, but under tight controls • Art/ literature monitored to reflect communist values • Education-used to created loyal and right thinking citizens • Ceremonies and parades to stimulate devotion to communism and state • Orthodox church not banned, but limited-couldn’t preach to anyone under 18, taught in school that religion was superstition, limited freedom of Jews yet gave more to Muslims. • Attacked western culture-including art and literature • Literature remained diverse despite official controls • Scientists enjoyed great prestige-discoveries in physics, chemistry, and math. Helped improve technology for society and military. Biology-had to reject evolution-could be jailed for that.

28. Economy and Society-USSR • Fully industrialized society, rapid manufacturing and urban growth • State controlled economy so focus was on heavy industry not on consumer goods-lagged behind west • Over time living standards improved and welfare helped, but still limited consumer products • Industry caused environmental damage-waste dumped • Problem in agriculture-capital diverted to industry and not to purchase farm equipment. Many workers not motivated. More workers retained on farms while food supply was at time problematic • Life-rapid pace of work-rewarded through incentives, leisure activities-vacations, sports, films, TV • Class emerges (workers vs. middle class-ed). Different standard of living. • Soviet family-lower amount of children • Focus on child education, but still emphasis on authority

29. De-Stalinization • Stalin died in 1953-USSR ruled by committee • 1956 Nikita Khrushchev. He denounced Stalin and many felt reforms were sure to come and began movements in homelands. These were repressed with violence by the Russian military. Little reform ever actually happened. He tried to open up Siberian lands for farming but failed and offended many Stalin loyalists. He was ousted in 1964. • Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 • Soviets ahead of US in space race: Sputnik first space satellite in 1957 and in 80s led in manned space flights • China: rift with China b/c of new alliances • In 1979 USSR invaded Afghanistan to put in a friendly puppet gov.-ended in a long drawn out guerrilla war lasting to end of 80s. • Low worker motivation and discipline led to lower productivity (alcoholism got so bad it actually increased death rates in adult males)-wanted consumer goods and western culture! • In 80s economic conditions started to deteriorate rapidly in Russia –fall of USSR was shocking to some and the question arose of how to replace it?

30. Global Connections • Massive competition between West and Soviets dominated between 1945-1992 • Communism vs. Capitalism • Key role in decolonization both urged by US and Soviets • Played roles in nationalism • Gave ability of other countries to pit 2 superpowers against each other • Western and Soviet ideas not completely contradictory-both largely secular and both societies emphasized science. Both societies challenged social traditions like women’s roles. Both sold weapons on world market. Both could influence and pressure changes across the globe.

31. Works Cited • http://www.amorosart.com/prints-buffet-175-1-en.html Buffet paintings • http://www.ultimatedallas.com/dallas/ Dallas