LCA Overview in an European Framework Applications, Challenges & Barriers

1. CARTIF FOUNDATION Boecillo Technology Park Boecillo (VALLADOLID) – ESPAÑA www.cartif.es Alternative Water Sources  +34 983 546504  +34 983 546521  pednie@cartif.es Pedro P. Nieto LCA Overview in an European Framework Applications, Challenges & Barriers

2. AQUAREC/Hochstrat et al, 2006 WATER SCARCITY PROBLEM • Traditional water sources are limited • Growing population and demand • Decreasing quantity and quality of fresh water (overexploitation) • 1/3 population suffer drought and water shortage – Stress and competition for water resources • Unbalanced – Unsustainable • How to balance this? • Demand management: Water saving –Increasing efficiency –Water pricing –Information campaigns –Water restrictions –Reducing leakage • Supply management: Increasing storage (reservoirs, groundwater recharge) ––Water transfers- Alternative water sources

3. AVAILABLE WATER SOURCES • AlternativeWater Sources • Saline Water (Seawater and Brackish Water) • Rainwater / Stormwater • Reused Water (Wastewater Effluent and Greywater • Other (Air-conditioner condensate, filter reject water, cooling-tower blowdown…) • Traditional Water Sources • Lakes • Rivers • Groundwater • WaterUses • Drinking • Irrigation • Industrial • Energy prod. • Domestic • Sources Gleick, 1999 EEA, 2009

4. Seawater 96.5% world water Salinity (> 30 g/L) Pollutants Salts Colloidal Hydrocarbons and oil Biological (algae, microorg.) Boron Availability is site specific Brackish water Water from estuaries, groundwater fossil aquifers, contact between seawater and fresh water. Human activities Less salty than seawater (0.5 – 30 g/L) Pollutants (Natural and anthrop) Salts, F-, Radionuclides Nutrients (fertilizers) Pesticides Arsenic (Mining) Endocrine disruptors (Pharmaceutical) Availability is site specific Seawater and Brackish Water I

5. Treatment Pre-treatment Post-treatment Coagulation/Flocculation Filtration Disinfection Membranes Thermal processes Membranes Blending Water Alk, pH, Hardness Disinfectants Seawater and Brackish Water II • Appropriate technology it could be a safe and high quality source of water for several uses, including drinking and potable uses • Desalination: Remove salt from saline waters to produce fresh water. Limits in water standards include: TDS, Cl-, Na, B • Membranes • Rapid development. Surpassing thermal processes • Several membranes technologies for different water quality and uses • RO: Drinking water production. Ion1. Higher Pressure • NF: Not drinking uses. - Mildly brackish waters. Coupled with RO reduce operation costs. Ion2 dissolved OM • ED (Electrodialysis) Brackish waters • Need to treat concentrate before disposal. Sea disposal, treatment. ZLD (zero liquid discharge) RO+Therm evap+Cryst+ brine concentration+spray dryers. Unaffordable • Thermal processes – Distillation • First technologies developed for desalination • Configuration • Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) • Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF) • Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD) • Mainly used in Middle East countries. Economically unfeasible. Not sustainable. • Easy access to fossil fuel resources • Poor quality of water sources (High T, salinity, fouling potential)

6. Rainwater / Stormwater • Mainly for non potable water use • Irrigation. Garden watering. • Domestic uses (toilet flushing, car washing) • Fire fighting • Direct use or treatment when stored • Water collected from naturalprecipitation(rain, storms, snowmelt…) • Pollutants. Wide number and range. Dependant on collection systems and air quality. (roofs, runoff from parking lots, roads, recreational areas…) • Eriksson et al. 2007 list of priority pollutants. Main pollutants and other micropollutants which represent a risk even at very low concentrations. • Organic matter. Nutrients • Metals (Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu) • PAHs (pyrene, benzopyrene..) • Other xenobiotics • In spite of these contaminants rainwater is usually of better quality than untreated sewage and has better public acceptance. • Availability. Seasonal and influenced by climate changes (flooding and shortage periods)

7. Reused Water - Greywater I • Greywater • Urban WW from all domestic uses (baths, showers, washing machine, dishwasher…) but streams from toilets (kitchen WW) • Low level of contaminant pathogens • Biodegradable (ratio BOD/COD) • Deficient in nutrients (N and P) • Depends on kitchen WW and detergents used (P-free) • Neutral pH • Availability. Source-Use. Estimation 90-120 l/p/d • Reused water. WWTP effluent • Treated water from WWTP. Anthropogenic source • Reported advantages of its Use • Decrease discharge of WW into water bodies • Reduce demand of fresh water • Pollutants • Pathogens • Disinfection by-products • Nutrients. Nitrogen • Negative public response to use this source (yuck factor) • Availability. Increases as population and economic growth. Constant supply.

8. Reused Water – Greywater II • Typical treatment flow-diagram • Pre-treatment. Screening/ Filters. Remove Particles Oil and Fats • Post-treatment (Disinfection) • Treatment (Guidelines F.Li et al. 2009) • Chemical • Coagulation • Activated Carbon • Ion exchange • AOPs (photocatalytic oxidation) • Removes efficiently SS, OM surfactants in low strength WW • Biological • Anaerobic (not suitable) • RBC (Rot Biol. Contact.) • SBR • MBR • Constructed Wetland (Environ friendly and cost effective) • Physical • Sand filters • Soil filtration • Membrane filtration (UF) • Only effective at very low organic load. Generally do not reach Water quality standards. Chemical Treatment Low Equalization Storage Sedimentation Screening Filtration (Mb, sand) Disinfectation Reuse Biological Treatment High

9. CARTIF FOUNDATION Boecillo Technology Park Boecillo (VALLADOLID) – ESPAÑA www.cartif.es Conclusions Thank you • Conventional approach water demand and supply is unsustainable • Increasing water efficiency (processes and supply systems) • Adapting water treatment and use to quality required (stop potable water supply for non potable uses) • Upgrading and developing alternative sources • In most cases water availability is not the problem. Water quality. • Stricter quality standards • Develop technologies: technical and economical feasibility