Developmental Psychology

1. Developmental Psychology Bretherton, I. (1993). Theoretical contributions from developmental psychology. In P. G. Boss, W. J. Doherty, R. LaRossa, W. R. Schumm, & S. K. Steinmetz (Eds.), Sourcebook of family theories and methods: A contextual approach (pp. 275-297). New York: Plenum Press.

2. Contributions from Developmental Psychology • James Mark Baldwin: • Social relationships, particularly those with parents and siblings, influence human development. • Multiple social selves: one person has different social selves which are developed in different social relationships. • New experiences are understood in terms of old experiences. • To become a full member of society, people must develop shared social representations of the world. • Impact of different relationships: • Authority figures such as parents contribute to new learning. • Relationships with peers allow the child to practice already-known skills. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

3. Contributions from Dev. Psychology (cont.) • James B. Watson: • A behaviorist who suggested that humans should only be studied by observing their behaviors. • Parenting should be a science based on conditioning principles. • Arnold Gessell: studied the bi-directional influence of the parent-child dyad. • Lewin: also studied bi-directional influence between parent and child, but noted that environment strongly influenced development. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

4. Contributions from Psychoanalytic Theories • Object relations theory suggests that relatedness to others is the most basic need. • Capacity for close interpersonal relationships is influenced by type of care an infant receives (e.g., tender versus anxious) (Sullivan, 1953). • The “good enough parent” (based on Winnicott, 1958): • Provides a “holding environment” so that an infant can become organized as a person. • Two roles of this parent which allow an infant to become attuned to her/his own bodily impulses: • Appropriate and prompt response to child’s needs results in a sense of efficacy. • Place limited demands on the child when not needed so that the infant develops a capacity for aloneness which is central to a stable self. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

5. Contributions from Psychoanalytic Theories (cont.) • Erikson suggested eight major dilemmas that are universally experienced: • Basic trust versus mistrust (infancy). • Autonomy versus shame and doubt (early childhood). • Initiative versus guilt (childhood). • Industry versus inferiority (early adolescence). • Identity versus role confusion (adolescence). • Intimacy versus isolation (youth). • Generativity (being productive -- ambition) versus stagnation (adulthood). • Integrity versus despair (old age). Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

6. Assumptions • The parent-child relationship plays a crucial role in the development of a sense of self and the capacity for relatedness to others. • Patterns of social interaction with parents are internalized . . . [which] affect a person’s capacity for close relationships outside the family. • Parental input operates through the child’s ability to process it. • Cultural values of the elder generation affect the patterning of the parent-child relationship. • Generativity, or the need to nurture, is a critical phase in adult development. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

7. Attachment Theory • Postulate: the human infant is preadapted to respond to it’s caregiver. • Evolutionary function: attachment behaviors promote close proximity to the caregiver so that the child can be protected from danger. • Type of attachment is influenced by caregiving; children can be categorized as: • Secure. • Ambivalent (e.g., seek comfort but show anger or resistance) • Avoidant. • Insecure-disorganized: difficult to classify in one of the preceding categories. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

8. The Ecological Theory of Human Development • Two important points: • It is important to study human development in it’s broader context. • Research should have ecological validity: “the environment experienced by the subjects in a scientific investigation [should] have the properties it is supposed or assumed to have by the investigator” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 29; quoted in Bretherton, 1993, p. 286). • Structure of the environment influences development. There are four systems: • Microsystem • Mesosystem • Exosystem • Macrosystem Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

9. The Ecological Theory of Human Development (cont.) • Microsystem: • Face-to-face experiences which feature a pattern of • activities, • roles, • and interpersonal relations • The experiences occur with people who have distinctive characteristics of • temperament, • personality, • and systems of personal belief. • Mesosystem: • A system of microsystems. • The linkage and processed between important settings (e.g., home and daycare or school). • Exosystem: • Two or more settings, but one does not include the child (e.g., parent’s employment). • There is still a direct effect on the child. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

10. The Ecological Theory of Human Development (cont.) • Macrosystem: the social blueprint for a particular culture which influence through a variety of internal and external processes, including • belief systems, • resources, • hazards, • life styles, • opportunity structures, • life course options, • patterns of social interchange. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

11. Example of a Contextual Study • Variables: • Exosystem: retrospective evaluation of relationship to parents and social support. • Microsystem: observation of parent-child interactions and measurement of individual qualities. • Findings: • Negative change in marital satisfaction after the birth of the child predicted attachment. • When all factors functioned in a positive, supportive mode, attachment was secure. • Exosystem: mother’s of securely attached children reported having more ego strength and interpersonal affection. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson