Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) across three disciplines: A case study in Epistemology

1. Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) across three disciplines: A case study in Epistemology

3. Priestley and Theology • Particularly opposed to the doctrines of: • The Trinity • The existence of the Immortal Soul • The Atonement • Sacramental transubstantiation

4. Priestley and Theology • In arguing for the Unity of God Priestley uses the following intellectual tools: • REASON • SCRIPTURES • HISTORY

5. Priestley and Theology: Reason Reason : Common Sense Priestley often speaks about the absurdities into which men may fall “when they get out of the road of plain truth and common sense”. Reason: Facts supercede Common Sense Priestley draws attention to “what may be called the language of the naked facts, and what cannot but be understood wherever they are known…., what the facts themselves necessarily speak without any interpretation….”

6. Priestley and Theology: Reason Reason: Cause-Effect Principle “Our reasoning from effects to causes carries us no further than to the immediate creator of the visible universe….the immediate cause or author of the visible universe is the self-existent first cause…” Reason: Probability rather than Certainty “Priestley displays a robust immunity to the problem of scepticism…For him, it is unreasonable to expect to silence all doubt..”

7. Priestley and Theology: Scripture Scripture: Direct Quotations Deuteronomy 6:4 “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one God” Scripture: Original language and Context In Priestley’s opinion John’s gospel was written to counteract the philosophy of Gnosticism….The Greek word, logos, translated word, as applied to Christ is one which does not assert the divinity of Christ as a person but the divinity of that power by which Christ acted. Scripture: Its Nature Not infallible but bore the marks of having been written, not by enthusiasts or impostors, but by plain sensible men, of genuine piety and integrity.

8. Priestley and Theology: History History: Origin of a Corruption Church fathers of the third century AD were the first to misrepresent John 1:3 as teaching the divinity of Christ. History: Different understandings of the Church Fathers With respect to the Lord’s Supper Priestley observes that Zwingli was much more rational than Luther on this subject. For he considered the bread and wine as no more than signs and symbols of the body and blood of Christ, and that we derive no benefit from the eucharist, except what arises from the recollection of the merits of Christ. Calvin was much less rational. For he supposed that a certain divine virtue or efficacy was communicated by Christ, together with the bread and wine.

9. Priestley and Theology: History History: Maxims of Historical Criticism Number 10: The common or unlearned people, in any country, who do not speculate much, retain longest any opinions with which their minds have been much impressed; and therefore we always look for the oldest opinions in any country, or any class of men, among the common people, and not among the learned.

10. Priestley and Education • Thus while your universities resemble pools of stagnant water, secured by dams and mounds, and offensive to the neighbourhood, ours are like rivers, which, taking their natural course, fertilize a whole country. • Some important features of Priestley’s view of Education: • Liberty to think for oneself. • Physiological basis for thought. • Interdependence of knowledge • Virtue supercedes knowledge.

11. Priestley and Education: Liberty And it is the great object of this institution to remove every bias the mind can lie under, and give the greatest scope to true freedom of thinking and inquiry. Priestley deplored the fact that the universities required from their students an absolute subscription to complex articles of faith, which it is impossible they can have studied, and which it is not generally supposed they can even have read.

12. Priestley and Education: Physiology Knowledge derives from impressions of external objects upon the senses. Our external senses furnish the materials of all the ideas of which we are ever possessed. Vibrations in the white medullary substance of the brain, spinal marrow and the nerves proceeding from them are the basis of all our perceptions (David Hartley).

13. Priestley and Education: Interdependence Education to Priestley meant not just intellectual or physical or moral education, but all three together, since they are all, through association, interdependent. For when literary and scientific excellence coincide with that which is of a moral nature, it adds unspeakably to the value of a character. Ingenuity coupled with modesty, and great genius with benevolence and true piety, constitute the perfection of human character, and is what we should ever have in view.

14. Priestley and Education: Virtue Virtue is the right disposition of mind leading to right conduct in life. As far as virtue is concerned, thinking (CAUSE) and action (EFFECT) are intimately linked. A virtuous and pious man is to be more greatly admired and esteemed than the greatest scholar. Priestley warned the young minds at Hackney that while great scholarship was to be strived for, if it led to self-conceit, envy, jealousy and hatred it would result in the greatest depravity to which human nature is subject.

15. Priestley and Chemistry • In Priestley’s discussion of chemistry the following seem significant: • Nature behaves according to certain laws. • Properties can be understood in terms of the cause-effect relationship. • Elements classified as substances or principles. • Occam’s Razor. • Precedence to Experiment.

16. Priestley and Chemistry: Laws of Nature Experimental philosophy is an investigation of the wisdom of God in the works and the laws of nature, so that it is one of the greatest objects to the mind of man, and opens a field of inquiry which has no bounds; every advance we make suggesting new doubts and subjects of further inquiry.

17. Priestley and Chemistry: Cause-Effect Relationship Thus we say that the union of phlogiston to a particular kind of earth is the cause of its becoming a metal. A metal is thus the effect of the corresponding cause of adding phlogiston to an earth. phlogiston + earth  metal cause effect

18. Priestley and Chemistry: Substances and Principles Elements were classified as substances if they were visible, tangible, or had weight. Elements were classified as principles if there was some doubt about the material nature of the element. Priestley classified heat, light, electricity, magnetism, attraction and repulsion as principles. He classified dephlogisticated air (oxygen) as an acidifying principle and phlogiston as an alkaline principle.

19. Priestley and Chemistry: Occam’s Razor It is one of the principle rules of philosophizing to admit no more causes than are necessary to account for the effects…In other words, we must make no more general propositions than are necessary to comprehend all the particulars contained in them.

20. Priestley and Chemistry: Experiment Priestley’s practice was to write literary cookery books that encouraged everyone to participate, urging that by repeating or conducting their own experiments, men and women could draw their own conclusions rather than having conclusions handed down to them by specialists and experts.

21. Intellectual Features across Priestley’s Theology, Education, and Science • Cause-Effect thinking • Deep respect for factual evidence • Skeptical of speculation and theory • Reason and Argument preferred to malignant behaviour • Liberty to think for oneself • Knowledge with humility as virtue exceeds knowledge • Bias towards a material view of nature • Knowledge is interdependent and unifies human endeavour

22. 18th century Universities High view of sacred text 18th century Priestley Moderate view of sacred text 18th century David Hume Low view of sacred text 21st century Moderate view of sacred texts Science/Religion interdependent 21st century High view of sacred texts Religion predominant 21st century Low view of sacred texts Science predominant