EDUS 220 Educational Psychology

1. EDUS 220 Educational Psychology Unit 3: Cognitive and Social Development Dean Owen, Ph.D., LPCC Spring 2011

2. How does the mind change with age and experience?

3. The Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget “Children have real understanding only of that which they invent themselves, and each time that we try to teach them something too quickly, we keep them from reinventing it themselves. “

4. Topics to be discussed Brief Biography of Jean Piaget Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Implications for Teaching

5. Jean Piaget Born: August 9, 1896Neuchâtel, SwitzerlandDied: September 17, 1980Geneva, SwitzerlandSwiss psychologist (Genetic Epidemiologist)

6. Young naturalist Jean Piaget was born on August 9, 1896, in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, the son of a historian. Much of Piaget's childhood was influenced by what he saw in his father, a man intensely dedicated to his studies and work. Because of this, at an early age Piaget began passing up recreation for studying, particularly the study of the natural sciences. When he was eleven, his notes on a rare part-albino (having extremely pale or light skin) sparrow were published, the first of hundreds of articles and over fifty books. Several times, when submitting his works to be published in various magazines, Piaget was forced to keep his young age a secret. Many editors felt that a young author had very little credibility.

7. Piaget's help in classifying Neuchâtel's natural-history museum collection inspired his study of mollusks (shellfish). One article, written when he was fifteen, led to a job offer at a natural history museum in Geneva, Switzerland; he declined in order to continue his education. At Neuchâtel University he finished natural science studies in 1916 and earned a doctoral degree for research on mollusks in 1918.

8. Early career Piaget's godfather introduced him to philosophy (the search for knowledge). Biology (the study of living organisms) was thus merged with epistemology (the study of knowledge), both basic to his later learning theories. Work in two psychological laboratories in Zurich, Switzerland, introduced him to psychoanalysis (the study of mental processes). In Paris at the Sorbonne he studied abnormal psychology (the study of mental illness), logic, and epistemology, and in 1920 with Théodore Simon in the Binet Laboratory he developed standardized reasoning tests (universal tests).

9. Early career Piaget's thought that these quantitative tests were too strict and saw that children's incorrect answers better revealed their qualitative thinking at various stages of development. This led to the question he would spend the rest of his life studying: How do children learn?

10. The study of children Piaget found four stages of mental growth while studying children, particularly his own: A sensory-motor stage, from birth to age two, A pre-operational stage, from two to seven, A concrete operational stage, from seven to eleven, and A formal operational stage from age eleven.

11. Piaget believed that children's understanding through at least the first three stages differed from those of adults and are based on actively exploring the environment (surroundings) rather than on language understanding. During these stages children learn naturally without punishment or reward.

12. Piaget saw nature (heredity, or characteristics passed down from parents) and nurture (environment) as related and equally as important, with neither being the final answer. He found children's ideas about nature neither inherited (passed down from parents) nor learned but constructed from their mental structures and experiences. = Nature Nurture

13. Mental growth takes place by integration, or learning higher ideas by absorbing lower-level ideas, and by substitution, or replacing early explanations of an occurrence or idea with a more reasonable explanation. Children learn in stages in an upward spiral of understanding, with the same problems attacked and solved more completely at each higher level.

14. Harvard psychologist Jerome Bruner (1915–) and others introduced Piaget's ideas to the United States around 1956, after his books were translated into English. The goal of American education in the late 1950s, to teach children how to think, called for further interest in Piaget's ideas. His defined stages of when children's concepts change and mature came from experiments with children. These ideas are currently favored over the later developed stimulus-response theory (to excite in order to get response) of behavioral psychologists, who have studied animal learning. Piaget's theories developed over years. Further explanations and experiments were performed, but these refinements did not alter his basic beliefs or theories.

15. Process of Cognitive Development. As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment (Piaget described as intelligence.) Behavior (adaptation to the environment) is controlled through mental organizations called schemes that the individual uses to represent the world and designate action. This adaptation is driven by a biological drive to obtain balance between schemes and the environment (equilibration).

16. Process of Cognitive Development. Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes operating at birth that he called "reflexes." In other animals, these reflexes control behavior throughout life. However, in human beings as the infant uses these reflexes to adapt to the environment, these reflexes are quickly replaced with constructed schemes.

17. Process of Cognitive Development. Piaget described two processes used by the individual in its attempt to adapt: assimilation and accomodation. Both of these processes are used throughout life as the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner. Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures. Accomodation is the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment. Both processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life.

18. An example of assimilation would be when an infant uses a sucking schema that was developed by sucking on a small bottle when attempting to suck on a larger bottle. An example of accomodation would be when the child needs to modify a sucking schema developed by sucking on a pacifier to one that would be successful for sucking on a bottle. As schemes become increasingly more complex (i.e., responsible for more complex behaviors) they are termed structures. As one's structures become more complex, they are organized in a hierarchical manner (i.e., from general to specific).

19. The sensory-motor stage Birth to 24 months In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because it’s based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage. Object Permanence: The ability to understand that an object still exists even when it is not in sight.

20. Object permanence refers to the ability of the brain to retain and utilize visual images. It develops at about seven months of age. This faculty is distinct from a baby's recognition memory. For example, a baby is able to recognize and prefers to look at its mother by the third day of life. However, it will not cry upon being left by mother; "Out of sight, out of mind." At around seven months, the child will be exhibit signs of separation anxiety when mother leaves the room. This is because the child can now appreciate what he has just lost - the presence of his mother.

21. Another sign of the attainment of object permanence is baby's delight at the game of "peek-a-boo," which demonstrates graphically that the child appreciates that just because Mother is out of direct view she is still in the world and can be recalled by moving the hands or blanket out of the way.

22. The pre-operational Stage 2-7 years Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood). In this period (which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner. Egocentric thinking predominates There is only one way to view the world…from my vantage point. At this stage I lack the ability to appreciate events from another’s point of view. A child can hit another without realizing the pain or discomfort it may cause.

23. The pre-operational Stage 2-7 years Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage: Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism. During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse. Role playing also becomes important during the preoperational stage. Children often play the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor," and many others.

24. The pre-operational Stage 2-7 years Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage: Egocentrism: Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study the mental abilities of children. One of the famous techniques egocentrism involved using a three-dimensional display of a mountain scene. Children are asked to choose a picture that showed the scene they had observed. Most children are able to do this with little difficulty. Next, children are asked to select a picture showing what someone else would have observed when looking at the mountain from a different viewpoint.Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the mountain scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are unable to take on another person's perspective.

25. The pre-operational Stage 2-7 years Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage: Egocentrism: A B C D Piaget’s View Child’s View

26. The pre-operational Stage 2-7 years Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage: Centration: A common characteristic of the pre-operational period is referred to as centration. Children seem only to be able to concentrate on one attribute of feature of a problem at a time.

27. The pre-operational Stage 2-7 years Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage: Conservation: Another well-known experiment involves demonstrating a child's understanding of conservation. In one conservation experiment, equal amounts of liquid are poured into two identical containers. The liquid in one container is then poured into a different shaped cup, such as a tall and thin cup, or a short and wide cup. Children are then asked which cup holds the most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid amounts were equal, children almost always choose the cup that appears fuller.Piaget conducted a number of similar experiments on conservation of number, length, mass, weight, volume, and quantity. Piaget found that few children showed any understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.

28. The pre-operational Stage 2-7 years Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage: Conservation:

29. The concrete operational stage 7-11 years • Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Characteristics of Concrete Operations: The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

30. The concrete operational stage 7-11 years Decentration: The ability to attend to or consider multiple aspects or features of a situation or problem simultaneously. ?

31. The concrete operational stage 7-11 years Decentration: The ability to attend to or consider multiple aspects or features of a situation or problem simultaneously. : : ?

32. The concrete operational stage 7-11 years Classification: The ability to systematically group, sort, and organize objects in the environment and to see patterns. Furniture

33. The concrete operational stage 7-11 years Class Inclusion: Some categories are subsumed in other more inclusive categories. Are there more teddy bears or more toys?

34. The concrete operational stage 7-11 years • Logic: Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event. • Reversibility: One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal. • Animal….Dog…..Labrador…..Rusty • Rusty….Labrador.….Dog…..Animal

35. The formal operational stage 11-adult (?) • Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.

36. The formal operational stage 11-adult (?) The ability to think systematically about all the logical relations within a problem. Thinking about abstractions, ideals, and about the process of thinking itself (metacognition). Reality is made Secondary to Possibility Thought operates on a theoretical plane. Thinking about possibilities - what's not immediately present, not directly observed. What might occur. Abstract & Hypothetical Thought deals with propositions, no longer only objects. This is seen in: Thinking ahead - planning for the future. Thinking about hypotheses - counter factuals. Thinking about thought - metacognition. Thinking beyond conventional limits - idealism.

37. The formal operational stage 11-adult (?) IF BIRDS LIVE IN THE GROUND AND A GRONKER LIVES IN A TREE THEN A GRONKER IS NOT A BIRD

38. The formal operational stage 11-adult (?) Propositional Logic If x = 7, then 2x + 4 = ___?___ Arm: body :: Branch: __?__

39. The formal operational stage 11-adult (?) Probability and Proportional Reasoning What is the probability of drawing a blue chip from the bag….?

40. The formal operational stage 11-adult (?) Albert Einstein is said to have conjured his special theory of relativity by imagining himself riding on a photon traveling at the speed of light! Can you imagine what that would be like? • Imagination is more important than knowledge. Albert Einstein

41. Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date] from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html

43. Formal Operational Thought….. Battle of Britain….. A small lesson in history. If Germany had been successful in its plan to invade England, how would the course of WW II been different?

44. Lev Vygotsky Vygotsky believed culture was involved in cognitive development. His theory stressed the role of language and social interaction within particular cultures as being influential. He believed that children began interacting with adults or older peers on the margins of an adult activity (“legitimate peripheral participation”) – listening, watching, then helping a little, then taking on more responsibility, and finally assuming the full duty (“internalization”). What things children learn early on depends on what culture they grow up in – what is important in that society is generally taught to the young. What do we teach ours? 1896-1934

46. Sigmund Freud Psychosexual Stages of Development 1856-1939

47. Oral (birth- 18 months) • Anal (18 mos to 3 1/2 years) • Phallic (3 ½ to 6 years) • Latency (6-Puberty) • Genital (Puberty onward)

48. Erickson’s 8 Ages of Man

49. Erik Erikson Erikson’s Psychosocial theory Erikson’s stages are based on Freud’s in that the first five match Freud’s in time of appearance, but Erikson’s are enlarged, include more things, and there are three stages beyond. They take society more into account. The theme is search for identity and the scope is the lifespan. 1902 –1994

50. Erik Erikson 8 life Stages of Psycho-social Development Stage Period 1. trust vs. mistrust Infancy 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt Toddler (terrible twos) 3. initiative vs. guilt Preschool years 4. industry vs. inferiority Elementary School 5. identity vs. ID confusion Adolescence 6. intimacy vs. isolation Early Adulthood 7. Generativity vs Stagnation Middle Adulthood 8. integrity vs. despair = wisdom Late Adulthood