Objective 3.2

1. Objective 3.2 Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation

2. Observations • Much in depth qualitative research is observational in part. The reporting of such research is often inadequate, which hampers the assessment of its strengths and limitations and of a study's generalizability. • Bailey (1987) developed recommendations on what should be included in an accurate and complete report of an observational study. This is what we will use to answer this objective

3. Observations • There are various considerations available to an observation researcher in undertaking research. • Many of these considerations pertain to the way the researcher is to observe the phenomena of interest and are contingent upon various factors, including the purpose of the research, the setting in which the research will take place, the resources available and the nature of the study.

4. The Observation Research Process All observation research exercises tend to follow a common pattern of activities. This process has a number of distinct stages. The following is a nine-step approach in conducting an observational study.

5. The Observation Research Process Step 1- Determine Observation Research Objectives. • What the researcher wants to observe and the purpose of the observation is listed in the form of research objectives. • The researcher must formulate what is to be achieved by conducting the observation research. In broad terms, the main objective of the study should be to understand and describe the phenomena of interest as completely as possible, although each observer may have more specific sub-objectives.

6. The Observation Research Process Step 2-Selection of Research Subjects. The people to be observed must be decided. The research subjects selected must be done so as to achieve the research objectives. Why is this important?

7. The Observation Research Process Step 3- Decide Field Role. • Prior to entering the field, the observation researcher must decide which field role he/she is going to adopt. • The options available are: overt participant, covert participant, observer-as-participant or overt non-participant, covert non-participant. • The field role selected will be contingent upon the purpose of the research, time allocated for the research, organizational access and ethical approval.

8. The Observation Research Process Step 4-Gain Entry to the Research Field. • Observation researchers recognize the fundamental need to go where participants spend time. • Most research fields (unless it is a public place) cannot be observed by anyone, at any time. Entry must be gained to the research field. • In organizations, there are individuals who, by virtue of their office, have the authority to act as gatekeepers. • They can grant or withhold formal permission to enter and participate in the life of the organization.

9. The Observation Research Process Step 4-Gain Entry to the Research Field. • Hence, researchers must negotiate permission for entry through such gatekeepers. • The researcher must determine a strategy whereby, he/she will be granted entry to the field to be studied. • Dealing with such gatekeepers is therefore an extremely important part of gaining entry to the research field, but at the same time several hurdles stand in the way

10. The Observation Research Process Step 5- Build Rapport with the Subjects being Studied. • Achieving rapport is an important prerequisite in participant observation research. • Building rapport entails the development of reciprocal relationships and mutual trust between observer and subjects. Why is it important to build a rapport with participants?

11. The Observation Research Process Step 5- Build Rapport with the Subjects being Studied. • It is only when research subjects treat the observer as a friend and confidant, rather than a researcher that they will reveal their innermost feelings and make their most intimate and unbiased statements. • It can be the most difficult and time-consuming task in observation research, but is impetrative if valid data is to be obtained.

12. The Observation Research Process Step 6 - Observing and Recording. • The researcher begins observing the phenomena of interest and recording findings. Methods of recording (diary, post-observational notes, recorders, etc.) must be determined in this step. • More specifically, field notes recorded should have five components "a running description of events, previously forgotten happenings that are now recalled, analytical ideas and inferences, personal impressions and feelings, and notes for further information" (Source: pg 250.)

13. The Observation Research Process Step 7 - Exit from the Observational Study. • Once sufficient information is gathered, the researcher must exit from the field. • In instances where the researchers role is overt, the subjects must be thanked for their participation and contribution. • If on the other hand, the researchers role has been concealed throughout the observation process, the researcher must exit the field without drawing attention to oneself.

14. The Observation Research Process Step 8 - Data Analysis. • The chief task of data analysis in observation research consists of summarizing the field notes by means of taxonomies. • Once the data has been summarized, it must be interpreted in the context of which the phenomena took place, to draw meaningful conclusions about behavior. • In analyzing the data, the researcher must develop a framework of theory that will help him/her understand and explain to others, what is going on in the research setting under study.

15. The Observation Research Process Step 8 - Data Analysis. • There are no initial checklists for data analysis, simply observation of events, situations and behaviors, which are then written up and gradually, as more data accumulates, tentative guiding hypothesis, categorization, conceptual frameworks and some theoretical underpinning conjoin to give body, focus and direction to the data collected.

16. The Observation Research Process Step 9 - Presentation of Findings. Once conclusions have been arrived at through analysis, the researcher must compile a report presenting the findings. This is done in a similar manner as interviews.

17. Training for the observations The Skill Balancing Act • Observation skills do not get sharpened up in real life the way most other skills do. • Researchers need to train themselves to see, learn, and think when watching people. This takes tremendous amounts of practice and discipline. • In order, to meet the challenges posed by observation research a researcher embarking on an observation research project must develop the following skill profile. How could training as an observer change a covert/overt observation? A participant/non-participant observation?

18. Training for the observations Conflict Management. • Observation researchers face the probability of encountering conflicts with research subjects, if their status as a researcher is revealed during a covert observation research project. • Such conflicts if not handled appropriately, can be detrimental to the research project as it can de-motivate subjects and prevent them from extending their cooperation. • When such conflicts arise, researchers must be equipped with appropriate conflict management skills to cope.

19. Training for the observations Conflict Management. • Observation researchers face the probability of encountering conflicts with research subjects, if their status as a researcher is revealed during a covert observation research project. • Such conflicts if not handled appropriately, can be detrimental to the research project as it can de-motivate subjects and prevent them from extending their cooperation. • When such conflicts arise, researchers must be equipped with appropriate conflict management skills to cope.

20. Training for the observations Listening Skills. • Since some observational research does not entail questioning and speaking to respondents, researchers can collect information only through watching and listening. • Listening to the conversations of research subjects in their natural setting can yield useful information, which sometimes cannot be gathered through formal probing and questioning. • Hence, active listening skills must be developed to listen to research subjects and absorb what they are saying. This entails developing the ability to stay focused.

21. Training for the observations Critical Thinking. • Researchers must develop the ability to be objective and refrain from taking information at face value. • Developing critical thinking skills is imperative in conducting observation research to eliminate value judgments and assumptions about behavior. What issues can rise from misinterpreting what you observe? • Skills must be developed to evaluate situations, which occur in the observation field from different perspectives, eliminating the probability of misperception.