The Principles of Water Disinfection by Copper / Silver Ionization

1. The Principles of Water Disinfection by Copper / Silver Ionization

2. Introduction • For thousands of years, man has attempted to disinfect water without the use of hazardous chemicals. Algae, bacteria and viruses in water cause problems not only in drinking water, but in commercial uses also. • One of the means of water disinfection that has been used is that of copper/silver ionization. • ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. is the first to perfect the process of copper/silver ionization in various applications. • This presentation is broken up into five chapters: • Chapter one will take a look a the definition of ionization. • Chapter two will review the history of ionization. • Chapter three will explain how the ClearWater Purification System has perfected the process of copper/silver ionization. • Chapter four will give a detailed look at how copper/silver ionization actually disinfects the water. • Chapter five will look into the various applications of copper/silver ionization.

3. Chapter 1 - Ionization • ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. uses copper/silver ionization as the basis for its purification of water. To get a better idea of this, lets first look into the definition of an “ion” and “ionization”. • An “ion” is an atom or radical (group of atoms) which carries an electrical charge as the result of having lost or gained electrons. The atom’s charge is negative if it has an extra electron and positive if it is short an electron. A positively charged ion is called a “cation”, while a negatively charged ion is called an “anion”. An ion often has entirely different properties than the element (atom) from which it was formed. • “Ionization” is the process in which a chemical combination breaks up into simpler electrically charged components (individual atoms or groups of atoms) called ions. The ionization process is related to the gaining or losing of electrons causing the atoms or group of atoms to become electrically charged. • ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. uses copper and silver as the basis for its technology, thus copper/silver ionization is the electronic release of copper and silver ions.

4. Chapter 1 - Ionization Properties of Copper and Silver Copper is atomic number 29 in the Periodic Table of Elements. An atom of copper has 29 protons. The atomic weight is 63.54 and the atomic symbol is Cu. Cu Copper is in column IB of the Periodic Table of Elements, above Silver, whose atomic symbol is Ag. Ag

5. Chapter 1 - Ionization Elements in the same column have some similar properties. Copper has a Moh’s hardness of 2.5 to 3.0, which is harder than a fingernail but softer than a steel pocketknife. The surface has a metallic luster. With a specific gravity of 8.2 (based on a density of 8.2 grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3), it is far denser than water with a specific gravity of 1. Silver is below copper in column IB, is far denser at 19. Silver is the #1 mineral to conduct electricity where copper is #2. Copper is an excellent conductor of heat, making it an important metal in cookware, refrigerators and radiators. Copper is also resistant to corrosion--it will not rust. The melting point of copper is 1083.4oC. Copper is required in animal metabolism. Young children require approximately 0.1 mg/day of copper for normal growth and the daily requirements for adults is about 2 mg/day.

6. Various forms of copper, silver, copper/silver ionization has been used for thousands of years to disinfect water. The ancient Greeks were the first to discover the sanitizing power of copper. The Egyptians kept their water in silver containers to prevent contamination. Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization

7. Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization Early American pioneers moving west across the continent put copper and silver coins in large wooden water casks to provide them with safe drinking water on their long voyage. When the wagons rolled, the agitation caused the coins to discharge ions in the water. The copper ions killed algae and the silver ions killed bacteria and viruses. Today, copper is recognized as one of the best algaecides killers known to man. Oxides and sulfates of copper are used for pesticides, algaecides and fungicides. Copper is frequently incorporated into paints and wood preservatives to inhibit growth of algae and invertebrate organisms.

8. Silver has a long history as a bacterial and virus killer. Cryus the Greek, king of Prussia, carried water in silver flagons on his many military expeditions to keep water fresh. During the Plague-ridden Middle Ages, mothers knew to place a silver spoon in an infant’s mouth to ward off disease. Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization

9. Activated carbon filters for drinking water purification impregnate silver in the filters to inhibit the growth of bacteria that can build up in them. Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization Silver dollars have been used to keep milk from spoiling. Silver foil was used to cover wounds and surgical lesions to prevent infection and promote the healing process. Today, silver is the leading method used for treatment of burn victims. Bacteria multiplies very rapidly on burn areas. Drops of silver nitrate solution are applied to the eyes of newborn babies to prevent blindness due to gonorrheal infection.

10. Silver is used to fill cavities in teeth and helps prevent further decay. Today, sliver purifiers are used in about half the world’s airlines and in over 1,000 passenger ships Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization It was NASA that harnessed what nature already knew and designed an ionization system for their Apollo flights. The Johnson Space Center developed an electrolytic silver ion generator only slightly larger than a cigarette pack and weighing only 9 ounces.

11. Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization This small ionizer required minimal power and no astronaut monitoring--a critical factor to consider when in space. Mounted at various locations in the potable water supply and waste water systems, the ionizer would dispense silver ions into the water to kill bacteria and viruses. In 1962, silver was approved for use in drinking water by the U.S. Public Health Service.

12. Chapter 2 - History of Copper/Silver Ionization Today, the U.S. EPA allows 1.3 ppm copper and 100 ppb (parts per billion) of silver in the drinking water. The ClearWater Purifier only uses about 1/5th of these totals.

13. The ClearWater Purification System consists of a state of the art, microprocessor control box and a scientifically designed set of electrodes comprised of copper and silver. Currently, ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. manufactures 37 different models to handle any amount of water. Most of the systems can work on fresh or salt water with no adjustments required. Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System The control box works by generating a precise, low voltage, DC current at milliamp levels to the electrodes. These electrodes consist of a metal-plated cathode and a metal-plated anode. The metals consist of copper and silver.

14. Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System The percentage of silver versus copper varies on the application. A swimming pool unit requires only 1% of the electrodes to consist of silver, while cooling towers and hospital water disinfection requires up to 20% silver. The electrodes are housed in a flow cell chamber to allow easy access to them. The electrodes may need occasional cleaning and need to be replaced every year or two. The flow cell chambers vary between the residential and commercial units. The residential unit includes a black flow-cell tee that the electrodes screw into. The electrodes are secured in a clear bowl that can be removed without any tools and installed without Teflon tape.

15. Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System The flow cell is installed on the return line on swimming pools after the pump and either before or after the filter. On other applications, the flow cell can be installed on the incoming line as the water enters the building. Commercial units have the option of two sizes of tees - 3 in. or 4 in. There is a clear extension coming out of the tee that allows full view of the electrodes. As water is passed through the chamber, water flows past the electrodes where the control box sends a low voltage DC (direct current) charge to the electrodes. As the current moves, it produces metal ions courtesy of the copper and silver plating. The control box is a micro-processor that releases a controllable low voltage DC charge to the electrodes that causes some of the outermost atoms to lose an electron, thus becoming positive ions. As they attempt to flow across from one electrode to another, the flow of the water causes many of the ions to be released into the water where the copper ions kill algae and the silver ions kill bacteria and viruses.

16. Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System To control the amount of ions to be released into the water, simply turn the control knob on the microprocessor clockwise to increase the amount or counterclockwise to lower the amount. A digital readout in milliamp levels tells you the exact charge being applied to the electrodes. This can vary due to TDS levels (total dissolved solids) or conductivity of the water and wear & tear of the electrodes. The charge or polarity switches back and forth between the two electrodes bars to prevent plating of the cathode - or buildup of scale and copper plating. ClearWater’s unit changes the polarity every 5 minutes. This polarity change also allows for an even wear and tear on the electrodes. The electrodes are both identical in composition.

17. Chapter 3 - The ClearWater Purification System The actual setting of the control box is determined by the readings from a copper-ion text kit included with the unit. The recommended reading on the test kit should be between .20 - .30 ppm. A reading lower than that indicates that the control knob should be turned up. A reading lower than that means the control knob should be turned down. Generally, the reading will stay on the same setting during the season. The only change is when the water temperature increases - which promotes more algae, bacteria and viruses in the water. The more algae and bacteria, the more demand for copper ions.

18. + Copper ion Microorganism Cell - - + Silver Ion Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection When copper and silver ions are released into the water, these cationic, surface active ions are a potent biocide. The disinfection action takes place when the positively charged copper and silver ions form electrostatic bonds on negatively charged areas of the microorganism cell walls. These electrostatic bonds create stresses which lead to distorted cell wall permeability, minimizing the normal intake of life sustaining nutrients. Once inside an algae cell, copper and silver attack sulfur containing amino acid residues in the proteins used for photosynthesis (the process of converting light into useable food and energy). As a result, photosynthesis is blocked and lead to the cell’s death. If the algae cell manages to live, the reproduction process is hampered by the presence of the copper ions and the spread of algae is held in check. Bacteria is killed rather than suppressed.

19. Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection • The greatest benefit of copper/silver ionization is that the ions remain in the water providing a residual protection. Unlike most other types of sanitizers, the copper and silver ions remain in the water until they flocculate or form masses with algae and bacteria and then become large enough to be removed by the filtering equipment. When the “used” copper and silver ions are removed, the microprocessor control box is always producing new copper and silver ions to continuously sanitize the water. • Various studies have been done on copper/silver ionization over the years and has proven to be lethal to hundreds of different types of algae, bacteria, and viruses. • Understanding Waterborne Pathogens • Waterborne pathogens, or disease producing microorganisms can be classified into 3 sections: bacteria, viruses and protozoa. • Bacteria - are single-celled organisms which lack well-defined nuclear membranes and other specialized functional cell parts and they reproduce by cell division or spores. Bacteria may be free-living organisms or parasites.

20. Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection Bacteria and fungi are decomposers that break down the wastes and bodies of dead organisms, making their components available for reuse. Bacteria cells range from about 1 to 10 microns in length and from 0.2 to 1 micron in width. They exist almost everywhere on earth. Despite their small size, the total weight of all bacteria in the world exceeds that of all other organisms combined. Viruses - a parasitic infectious microbe composed almost entirely of protein and protein and nucleic acids which can cause diseases in humans. Viruses can reproduce only within living cells. They are 0.004 to 0.1 microns size about 1/100 the size of bacteria. Viruses often survive many disinfectants including chlorine. Protozoa - microscopic, usually single-celled microorganisms which live in water and are relatively larger in comparison to other microbes. Protozoa are higher on the food chain than the bacteria that they eat. Many protozoa are parasitic.

21. Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection • ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.'s ionizing system will kill most bacteria, viruses and protozoa. • A sampling of waterborne pathogens that the copper/silver ionization will kill: • Amoebae dysenteriae • Bacillius subtilis • Bacillius typhosus • Cryptosporidium • Endamoeba histolytica • Escherichia coli (E. coli) • Giardia lamblia • Herpes virus • HIV • Influenza A & B • Legionella pneumophila • Poliomyelitis virus • Proteus valgaris • Pseudomonas aeruginosa • Salmonella • Saccharomyees cerevisiae • Sarcina Flava • Shigella dysentiniae • Shigella flexneria • Staphylococcus aureus • Streptococus faecalis • V. cholera • Vaccinia virus • Vibrio cholerae

22. Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection Of the list on the previous page, the most common pathogens include: Escherichia coli (E. coli) - Is the standard test for health agencies in swimming pool water treatment. E. coli is one of the members of the coliform bacteria group normally found in human and animal intestines and indicative of fecal contamination when found in water. E. coli produces large amounts of toxins that can cause severe damage to the lining of the intestine. It can survive for many weeks in lakes, reservoirs and municipal water. E. coli is transmitted by fecal contamination in water and can also be transmitted through consumption of under cooked beef, unpasteurized milk and apple cider. Effects include gastrointestinal disorders and in some cases, kidney disorders. It has a four to seven day incubation period, so an infected person would not even know for four to seven days. Sometimes, death can result like the case in Marietta, Georgia, at a water park in the summer of 1998, where several children became ill and one died.

23. Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection Salmonella - another bacteria like E. coli, there are several groups in the salmonella group that can cause illness in humans. Transmission is through food and water contaminated by feces of infected people and animals. Its effects include severe dehydration and diarrhea. A small number of infected persons will develop pains in joints, eye irritation and painful urination. Cryptosporidium - a waterborne protozoan that forms cysts and causes acute gastrointestinal illness in humans. It is found in unfiltered surface water and is resistant to disinfectants such as chlorine and ultraviolet light. The disease, which begins about seven days after infection is transmitted by consumption of food, unhygienic diaper practices and contact with young farm animals. Outbreaks are related to food, drinking water and recreational water. People with normal immune systems can expect the illness to last for up to two weeks. Intermittent diarrhea can be expected during this time. For those with weak immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, patients undergoing cancer chemotherapy and organ transplant recipients, the disease can be life threatening.

24. Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection Giardia/Giardia lamblia - Giardia is a waterborne protozoan that forms cysts and is resistant to disinfectants such as chlorine and ultraviolet light. Giardia lamblia is a type of cyst found in the intestines of mammals and in water contaminated by mammal feces. The Giardia lamblia cyst, which is very common and is frequently carried by water, is capable of causing a contagious waterborne disease characterized by acute diarrhea. This disease is sometimes called “beaver fever” because beaver droppings containing Giardia lamblia are often suspected of contaminating the streams and causing the disease in humans that drink the contaminated stream water. It takes only one Giardia organism to cause infection. Its effects include chronic diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, fatigue and loss of weight. The disease requires medical treatment and may take up to two weeks before symptoms show up.

25. Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection Legionnaires’ Disease - The ClearWater Purifier also completely kills Legionnaires’ Disease, technically called Legionella pneumophila, which causes a pneumonia like illness in people with weak immune systems. The disease became more firmly identified after several people died at an American Legion convention in 1976. The bacteria is know to thrive at about 100oF and live in infected humidifiers, cooling tower water, saunas, shower rooms and water supplies. The disease is not contagious from person to person but is spread mainly by inhaling airborne water droplets. Legionnaires’ Disease can cause high fevers, severe respiratory ailments, pneumonia and death. An estimated 10,000 people in the United States develop the disease and in 5 to 15% the disease proves fatal. Hospitals are often the victims of Legionnaires’ Disease because patients are often elderly, very ill or have weak immune systems.

26. Chapter 4 - Copper/Silver Disinfection All of the previously mentioned diseases can be cured with the ClearWater Purification System.

27. Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications There are several applications for the ClearWater Purification System: Swimming pools - ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. has sold tens of thousands of systems designed for swimming pools. There are currently 35 models to handle any size swimming pool up to 2.4 million gallons of water. The big benefit with ionization and swimming pools is that the ionization kills algae, bacteria and viruses--all major concerns of any health department that regulates swimming pools. Because the water is always recirculating, it is easy to maintain a continuous kill of algae, bacteria and viruses.

28. Spas/Hot Tubs - very similar to swimming pools, just a much smaller volume of water. Spas normally use a lot of bromine to control algae, bacteria and viruses which can grow very easily in water that is over 100o. Marine Inhabit Aquariums - ClearWater’s ionizers are specially designed to work on both fresh and salt water with no adjustments required to the unit or electrodes. Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications The ions are long-lasting and keep a residual in the water unlike chlorine, UV and ozone. The copper and silver ions are not absorbed by the skin and effected by weather (ultraviolet evaporation) like chlorine is.

29. Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications • One of the more popular applications is on marine inhabit aquariums, such as dolphin tanks and sea turtles. • Algae is a major problem and a great deal of chlorine is required to control this algae buildup which is harmful to the mammals. • By installing the ionizer with copper only electrodes, (silver may be harmful to the mammals) algae is greatly controlled, often saving several hours a day in labor. The lowered chlorine levels is both for the dolphin’s eyes and skin. • Cooling Towers - Cooling towers operate on the principle of removing heat from water by evaporating a small portion of the water that is recirculated through the unit. Cooling towers are an integral part of large central air conditioning/chiller systems. • Cooling towers are a maintenance nightmare for the crew that maintains them. Because large amounts of water are used, biological control of these systems is critical. Without control, the development of biofilm and slime leads to reduction in heat transfer, system blockages, increased pumping costs, and a dramatic rise in the corrosion rate of the system’s pipe work and fittings.

30. Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications The copper and silver ions eliminates biological growth and will greatly reduce corrosion. The presence and growth of microorganisms in cooling towers cause plugged water passages and severe deterioration of metal surfaces by under-deposit corrosion. Iron deposition and corrosion is caused by the metabolism of “iron bacteria”, which can remove water soluble ferrous salts and deposit them as insoluble ferric oxides. These oxides tend to grow rapidly and can reach sizes large enough to restrict water flow. Another group of bacteria produce acids and waste which attach metal surfaces directly. These organisms can convert water-soluble sulfur compounds into hydrogen sulfide. One of the most common sulfate-reducing bacteria is desulfovibrio. This bacterium uses organic nutrients from the decomposition of other bacteria or algae as food. This process often takes place under existing biofilm or scale deposits. The corrosive action of desulfovibrio can produce condenser tube penetration in as little as six weeks.

31. Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications A third group of corrosive bacteria common to cooling towers are known as nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria react with dissolved ammonia to produce nitric acid. This acid lowers pH and causes localized attack on the cooling tower’s metal frames and piping. Algae, also a major source of trouble in cooling-water systems, adheres to metal surfaces and accelerates pitting by the release of oxygen during the metabolic process. Large algae growths also impede the effectiveness of biocidal treatments by absorbing them. This resistance to chemical treatment makes it necessary to rotate the chemical treatment to maintain its effectiveness. The copper/silver ionization system solves these biological problems and, as an added bonus, it kills Legionella pheumophila bacteria. Cooling towers are a major source of Legionnaires’ Disease (see previous section). This disease may spread through the air conditioning vents in the entire building, affecting people with weak immune systems.

32. Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications • A summary of all the benefits of the ClearWater Purification System on cooling towers includes: • Up to 90% reduction in chemicals and sewage pollution • Reduced operating costs • Extended equipment life • Less down time • Reduced water and sewer costs • Reduce fouling factor • Large energy savings • Corrosion control improved dramatically • Kills deadly Legionnaires’ Disease

33. Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications Hospital Water Supply - Hospitals are in business to help ill people. Did you know that about 20% of all patients that enter the hospital actually contract another disease during their hospital stay? One of the diseases is Legionnaires’ Disease which effects ill people or those with weak immune systems--basically any patient in the hospital. Legionella can not only spread through the air conditioning vents from the cooling towers, but from evaporative condensers, therapy pools and potable water distribution system. Legionella is transmitted through aspiration, aerosolization (a water steam generated from showers or faucets) or direct exposure to Legionella during respiratory tract manipulation. It is a well documented fact that copper and silver ions kill Legionnaires’ Disease and the use of the ClearWater Purification System can give hospitals the assurance against possible multimillion dollar lawsuits from people that die from the disease.

34. Chapter 5 - Copper/Silver Ionization Applications • Drinking Water Systems - ClearWater has entered the drinking water industry with its ionization system. • By incorporating copper and silver ions into the water supply, you can safely lower chlorine levels, have a much better kill rate with bacteria, and kill viruses (where chlorine fails to do the job). • The copper and silver ions provide a long lasting residual in the water, killing bacteria and viruses on an ongoing basis. • Currently, ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. has released a copper/silver ionization system on an RO system (Reverse Osmosis) where the ions enter the water supply, kill algae, bacteria and viruses and then they are removed and stored in a holding tank. • Municipal water systems would be ideal uses of the ClearWater Purification System because of government concerns about chlorine and high THM levels--a cancer causing agent. By using less chlorine, there are less THM’s in the water.