A BASIC GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH

1. A BASIC GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH

2. Introduction • The purpose of this lecture is to provide some basic guidance on research both for undergraduate and postgraduate students and will be divided accordingly. • It is intended both for those new to the area for those who are not new but want some help.

3. Lecture limitations (i) one lecture cannot cover all that could be said on the subject (ii) the focus is on generalities (iii) research always depends on the researcher

4. Undergraduate and postgraduate research What are the differences between research at undergraduate and postgraduate levels?

5. The nature of research “High level administration”

6. TERMINOLOGY ‘Dissertation’ will be used to mean all university research outputs (i.e. undergraduate research projects and/or dissertations, master’s theses, doctoral theses or academic writing more generally. ‘Assignment’ to mean an undergraduate type essay.

7. SELECTING A RESEARCH TOPIC

8. How do I choose a topic? (a) an entirely new subject (b) a new approach to a subject, theoretical or otherwise (c) a particular line of argument in the literature (d) a new set of sources or other research materials

9. Conducting the initial literature review It is always necessary to begin by undertaking a review of the existing research in your area

10. Conducting the initial literature review The review will give you: • an overview of the area • help you to gauge the extent of the literature that exists • provide some indication of how difficult the project will be • indicate the range of possible research sources

11. Conducting the initial literature review May need to contact: • librarians or archivists of libraries and repositories • also information specialists (especially those centres which are source-related)

12. Conducting the initial literature review Obtaining materials in the case of doctoral dissertations may involve visiting the university where they were written or requesting them by using inter library loan.

13. How do you find out what research is going on? Internet - good starting place is the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies database accessible of all subjects of research in progress by students of law in the UK.

14. How do you find out what research is going on? See also the Index to theses: with abstracts accepted for higher degrees by the universities of Great Britain and Ireland (1950– , published by ASLIB).

15. Conducting the initial literature review • Nobody conducts serious research in a vacuum • Research is not possible without acquaintance with existing work • Useful also to get hold of a good dissertation at the appropriate level and take a look

16. How do you find out what research is going on? For US try Dissertation Abstracts International 1861– online and on CD-ROM. Contains 1.7 million entries for doctoral theses, mainly from the US and Canada. Abstracts of the dissertations appear from 1980 onwards.

17. How do you find out what research is going on? For European dissertations: Red Europea de Información y Documentación sobre América Latina (REDIAL for short). Covers France, Spain, the United Kingdom since 1980.

18. Refining the question Use the literature and sources surveyed to refine your research subject and construct an analytical framework

19. Deciding on a question or hypothesis The question or hypothesis should set out for the reader and yourself what you want to find out. Might simply be a question or it might be a statement setting out a gap in an area of knowledge or it could be a theoretical statement that you will attempt to find evidence for or to refute.

20. Considerations when deciding on the research question Define the question as much as possible . Also explain: the area of research, what the dissertation will focus on, the methods employed. An outline might introduce the theoretical background to the research, state the hypothesis or question and then set out the structure of the research.

21. Considerations when deciding on the research question Equally important: ask yourself is this something you are capable of doing to the standard required?

22. Considerations when deciding on the research question Size: does it seem that the work can be accomplished within the set parameters? Parameters also include time, money, word limits, physical resources – e.g. the locations of sources (other countries?)

23. Producing a detailed written literature review First step in the research stage: should be the production of a detailed written literature review so that you can construct a research bibliography

24. Literature review – breadth In writing the literature review you should, if possible cover the subject area in its specific form but also within its wider bounds.

25. Literature review – inspiration The literature is both inspiration (what is sometimes called intellectual compost) and a guide

26. Literature review – stimulus Review should cause you to revisit your research question to develop or amend it. Regular review and revision of a research question is a standard practice especially at the start of the research stage

27. Constructing a research bibliography RB is a list of the texts and articles from the literature review. RB ought to be a comprehensive list of sources RB should be organised into sections (starting with primary and secondary sources as defined by subject specialism)

28. Constructing a research bibliography Review and RB are of great practical benefit: • help to organise your work effectively • save time later when writing up • also useful for potential publication

29. Size and Scope After question is refined can then: size (i.e. estimate how much) and scope (i.e. determine the variety and location of) sources and ascertain time required to research their source base

30. The research timetable The research timetable will be determined by your research process: section by section (i.e. chapter by chapter) or theme or perhaps as a whole?

31. Set objectives Break the research down into sections and set objectives. Objectives may be • intellectual parameters • by source • or by time

32. Keep active • Research should be active not passive • Keep to your research targets • Keep thinking about the research question(s) or the central question of the dissertation

33. Dynamic research • First - keep accurate research notes of what you have researched and when you researched it. • Keep these notes in a central file (electronic or otherwise) • Refer to it and make updates on a regular basis. • Don’t let the notes get out of date

34. Dynamic research Second - write brief reviews of the research you have undertaken daily or weekly This will help refine your research make you more critical, develop a deeper appreciation of a given area and suggest ways in which to develop the research

35. Plan your analysis After a degree of research construct plans for the analysis of the material. Use your research questions to organise your material Reflect on the research does it (a) fulfil your requirements or (b) is it inadequate and requires further materials

36. PREPARING RESEARCH MATERIAL Organisation of material is vital to the writing process Order it so that you can consult it in the correct sequence when writing up

37. Databases Be systematic Consider constructing a database specific to the needs of the research project

38. The reflective analyst Does your analysis productively support the aims underlying the research question, does it reach sufficient depth, is the research effort proportionate to that stage of the work?

39. The reflective analyst Develop the habit of questioning the practice of research and of testing your knowledge – do you have the level of insight and understanding to achieve the required quality of output when writing up?

40. BEGINNING TO WRITE Two things to remember about writing: (1) it is an intellectual process and is normally (and ought to be) taxing; (2) rarely does the writing up of research go smoothly in relation to your budget of time

41. Planning Build in time in addition to the amount you have to complete the research and produce the output as a buffer at the end of the process

42. Ensure style compliance Check that you are adhering to requirements: the structure required of the dissertation (chapters/sections/presentation of references/bibliography etc)

43. Managing writing • Break writing into sections (for example – usually by chapter or other smaller subsection) • Chapters may be defined by specific research questions or by subjects • Establish principles of clarity and coherence across the whole of the research • Check for consistency of approach

44. Literature and sources Decide how the existing literature (reviewed at the beginning of the writing up) and the research sources you are using cab best be melded together in response to the research question

45. REFINING THE DISSERTATION - intellectually Reflective research should query the premise and trajectory of the research in relation to the question and the sources • can be done individually • through discussion with a colleague or supervisor, • or through seminars or conferences

46. REFINING THE DISSERTATION - practically Build in periods after the completion of sections or chapters of the dissertation for calm and distant reflection Drafting, re-drafting, proofing and re-proofing work is always time spent profitably but should follow from careful thought and mature reflection

47. Finally Check the dissertation complies with the regulations required of it: style, construction and presentation Make sure you give your supervisor good time to review the dissertation before final submission

48. Summary of research process • Select a research topic • Conduct a literature review • Decide on a question or hypothesis • Write a detailed literature review • Create a research bibliography • Size and scope the sources • Create a research timetable • Prepare research material • Begin to write • Refine the dissertation

49. Undergraduate assignments Assignments require a different research approach to dissertations but there are some points they share in common: planning is the most important.

50. The basics “Legal Research” by David Stott published by Cavendish “Legal Research Guide” by Guy Holborn published by Butterworths