Building an Argument

1. Building an Argument How to write analytically

3. Outline • Structure • Description vs. Argumentation & Analysis • Fact & Evidence vs. Opinion • Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research • Nuance and Persuasion

4. 1. Structure How does MahmoodMamdani explain mass participation in the 1994 Rwandan genocide? Do you find his arguments convincing? If so, why?

5. 1. Structure • Overall structure is important! • Introductions provide an initial roadmap to your argument • Introductions should contain: • 1-2 lead-in sentences • A clear thesis statement • A brief outline of your argument

9. 1. Structure • An ‘Analytical’ Essay would look like this: • Introduction. • 1. Brief summary of main author’s argument. • 2. Main author’s strong points – analyse and support with other authors and context/background. • 3. Point of weakness 1 – criticise using other authors, background and context. • 4. Point of weakness 2 – criticise using other authors, background and context • 5. Point of weakness 3 – criticise using other authors, background and context • Conclusion

10. 1. Structure • Avoid descriptive essays! A prime example of a descriptive structure would be something like this: • Intro • 1. The history of the conflict • 2. Summary of Main Author argument • 3. Summary of Supplementary Author X • 4. Summary of Supplementary Author Y • 5. Analysis • Conclusion

11. 1. Structure • Every argument is made up of sub-arguments, e.g. in order to argue that Mamdani has downplayed certain factors, the previous student has to convincingly argue that these factors are important • Sub-arguments come in two types: • A. Supporting your main argument with logic and evidence giving credibility to your position • B. Supporting your main argument by discrediting someone else’s opposing/alternative argument with logic and evidence

13. 2. Description vs. Argumentation & Analysis You need to support every single claim you make in your argument with: • Factual evidence • Other author’s arguments In any case, you need to make explicitly clear why any point you make is relevant to your argument. Each point should close off with a magical “So What?”-Sentence. NEVER ASSUME YOUR AUDIENCE KNOWS WHY SOMETHING YOU BRING UP IS IMPORTANT – MAKE YOUR TRAIN OF THOUGHT, AND EVERY POINT’S RELEVANCE EXPLICIT!

16. 2. Description vs. Argumentation & Analysis A crude example: NOT a good point: “Mamdani underplays the cultural dynamics of the genocide, because Fuji (2008) says so.” A good point: “Fuji (2008) has shown the importance of cultural factors in the genocide. For example … [case xyz]. Without this dynamic, mass participation would have been a lot more unlikely, because it appears to have been a major factor that pressured people to take part. Mamdani does not give this enough credit.” The good point… … demonstrates the author’s argument with an example/evidence, i.e. it SHOWS that it is valid, rather than just CLAIMING that it is. … it explains why it is relevant to the student’s own argument – the magical “So What?!”-Sentence

17. 3. Fact & Evidence vs. Opinion “With defeat looming on the horizon, the Hutu Power tendency differentiated even further: the genocidal tendency was born of the crisis of Hutu Power” (Mamdani, 2001: 185).

18. 3. Fact & Evidence vs. Opinion When things go terribly wrong… … students present other authors’ opinions as facts … subscribe uncritically to someone else’s weak arguments … misrepresent an authors’ argument and twist it out of shape to support their own viewpoint Sometimes, this is done inadvertently – be careful how you phrase things!

21. 4. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Some Common Assumptions

22. 4. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research When looking at Quantitative Research, ask yourself… • What are the assumptions behind the approach to the issue? • What sorts of questions are asked, and why? • How are real-world phenomena turned into variables that can be quantified? • That a variable is the best approximation possible or that the data is the best that could be obtained does not mean that the research is without problems! • How is the data interpreted? What claims are made based on the data? • Numbers never just speak for themselves!

23. 4. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research When looking at Qualitative Research, ask yourself… • Who are the participants, and what are their potential alterior motives? • How does the researcher relate to the participants? • How is the data interpreted? What claims are made based on the data? • How transparent is the author about the process of interpretation? • Are generalisations supported by the data?

24. 4. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Whether quantitative or qualitative, good research that produced good evidence… • Is open about its assumptions, theoretical background and limitations • Is transparent about and rigorous in its methodology • Makes clear how data was interpreted in order to arrive at its conclusions • Does not make claims it cannot really substantiate

25. 5. Nuance & Persuasion • Stronger claims do not necessarily make your argument stronger! This applies to the body of your essay as well as your final conclusion. • It is way easier to criticise a claim that is phrased too strongly than it is to dispute a cautious statement. • In the social sciences there is never just one answer, explanation or interpretation – to claim that yours is the absolute best, one and only answer is asking to be criticised! • For example, consider the question, “What caused the Rwandan genocide?”

27. Wrapping up A good argumentative essay… … is logically structured … has a clear introduction … makes explicit, why certain points/pieces of information and evidence are relevant … does not misrepresent other authors’ arguments just to “prove” a point … engages critically with the literature … makes cautious conclusions rather than stark statements