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Social psychology explores how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by others. It delves into concepts such as self-concept, social comparison, in-groups, and out-groups, shedding light on how we perceive ourselves and interact with different social groups.
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Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? • Compared to people in Western countries, those in East Asia are more sensitive to situational influences on behavior • In order to change people’s racist behaviors, we first need to change their racist attitudes • Chimps are more likely to yawn after observing another chimp yawn
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? • Most people refuse to obey an authority figure who has told them to hurt an innocent person • Studies of college & professional athletic events indicate that home teams win about 60% of the time • Individuals pull harder in a team tug-of-war than when they pull in a one-on-one tug-of-war
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? • The higher the morale & harmony of a social group, the more likely its members are to make a good decision • From research on liking & loving, it is clear that opposites do attract • We are less likely to offer help to a stranger if other bystanders are present
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? • Compared to people in Western countries, those in East Asia are more sensitive to situational influences on behavior • True • In order to change people’s racist behaviors, we first need to change their racist attitudes • False • Chimps are more likely to yawn after observing another chimp yawn • True
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? • Most people refuse to obey an authority figure who has told them to hurt an innocent person • False • Studies of college & professional athletic events indicate that home teams win about 60% of the time • True • Individuals pull harder in a team tug-of-war than when they pull in a one-on-one tug-of-war • False
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? • The higher the morale & harmony of a social group, the more likely its members are to make a good decision • False • From research on liking & loving, it is clear that opposites do attract • False • We are less likely to offer help to a stranger if other bystanders are present • True
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. • Social psychology is the study of how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence and influence of others. Social psychologists are interested in how others can affect what an individual does and how he or she thinks or feels, as well as in how that individual can, in turn, influence others.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Social Influences on the Self • Social psychologists attempt to address important ideas including self-concept, one’s perception of who one is, and self-esteem, how valuable one feels oneself to be. Humans are social creatures, and typically enjoy the company of others. However, when we are with other people we often engage in social comparison, comparing ourselves to those around us as a way of judging or evaluating ourselves. When using social comparison we often judge ourselves based on our reference group, people we use as a comparison to ourselves and with whom we identify most strongly. Using our reference group to evaluate ourselves may lead to relative deprivation, being denied access to what we feel we are entitled to have, as well as a sense of inadequacy. However, not all comparison needs to take place around others; we are constantly drawing on temporal comparisons, using our past experiences to judge and evaluate ourselves in the current moment. Whether it is with our reference group or with our own past behaviors and experiences, we humans are constantly passing judgment on ourselves.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Social Influences on the Self • Which group an individual identifies with is an important component of who he or she is. That group is known as the in-group, a group for which the individual has strong feelings of loyalty, respect, and togetherness due to a common feature. An in-group could be your family, your sports team, or even those who listen to the same kinds of music as you. It is not uncommon for an individual to be a part of several different in-groups. Many times in-group members display in-group bias, showing favoritism toward other members of the same group based on shared feelings and admiration. The opposite of an in-group is an out-group, a group of people who hold beliefs different from those of the individual and toward whom he or she feels animosity. An example of an out-group could be a rival team or those who speak a different language. As with an in-group, it is easy for an individual to identify numerous out-groups, or groups to which he does not belong.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Social Influences on the Self • Self-schemas, mental frameworks or blueprints that people have about themselves, are different for each person. They affect the decisions we make, such as how we dress, what we pay attention to, and what and how we remember or react to another person, as well as our overall behavior. The schemas we hold of others influence our first impressions of others. When we meet a new person, we often employ the schema because we are interested in seeing whether that person will be similar to us in behaviors and thoughts. However, while talking to the person, we may begin to disagree with what he or she is saying, and we accordingly change the schema we initially held. Negative first impressions are much harder to change than positive ones. Our schemas have considerable power over those we encounter each day.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Social Influences on the Self • Our schemas can unknowingly influence how we treat a person. If you were told that Christina was a smart and kind young lady, you would most likely behave in a way that reflected what you had been told. The schema you have of Christina influences what you say and how you act around her. Because schemas are powerful and influential, they may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, when a person unknowingly behaves in a manner that helps to justify or fulfill the expected outcome.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Explaining Behavior • Why to people behave the way they do? Social psychologists study attributes, attempts to explain why a person behaves a certain way, as a way of understanding how and why individuals explain their own behaviors, as well as the behaviors of others.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Attribution Theories • People tend to explain behavior in one of two ways: as the result of either internal (dispositional) factors, behavior that is explained as the result of personal (dispositional) characteristics, or external (situational) factors, behavior that is explained as the result of unavoidable factors or factors out of one’s control. Suppose Jim and his friend are walking down the hallway when another student, whom Jim does not know, bumps into him. Jim says to his friend, “Wow, that guy doesn’t know how to walk!” Jim has made an internal (dispositional) attribution by saying that the person who bumped into him doesn’t know how to walk. However, if Jim said to his friend, “That guy must have been in a hurry to get to class on time,” Jim would have made an external attribution. We all use attributes to explain the behaviors of others, as well as our own behaviors.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Errors in Attribution • A common attribution error that people make each day is the fundamental attribution error (FAE), the tendency to explain the behavior of others as the result of an internal or dispositional factor. For example, imaging you are driving a car and a person cuts in front of you. In response, you honk the horn and say to yourself, “That guy can’t drive!” You are making a fundamental attribution error in assuming that the reason the person cut in front of you was because he doesn’t know how to drive. You are trying to explain his erratic behavior by blaming it on dispositional/internal factors. In doing so, you are ignoring any of the myriad situational factors (e.g., he is rushing to the hospital with an injured friend, or he had just been stung by a bee) that could easily account for the behavior.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider) • The theory that suggests the way in which we explain the behavior of others… • We credit that behavior either to the SITUATION (external attribution) or to the person’s DISPOSITION (internal attribution) • Example • Was my friend a jerk because he had a bad day or is he simply a bad person?
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider) • The Scenario • You are a teacher. Clive, your student, is always hostile towards you. He tells you that your class is a waste of time, that you’re his least favorite teacher and that he already knows more than you could possibly teach him. • Using attribution theory, how might you explain Clive’s behavior?
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider) • The Scenario • Situational Factors (External Attribution) • Clive’s parents are getting divorced & he’s lashing out • Clive has a bad memory of a teacher picking on him & now he dislikes all teachers • Clive has your class right before lunch & his hunger makes him wish class was over • Dispositional Factors (Internal Attribution) • Clive has an aggressive personality; he’s lazy; he’s disrespectful…
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider)
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Fundamental Attribution Error (David Napolitan & George Goethals) • The tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition • Example • How do students typically view a teacher’s cranky behavior? • Most probably attribute it to their personality, as opposed to their profession…
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Fundamental Attribution Error (David Napolitan & George Goethals) • What is the function of the fundamental attribution error? • To protect our self-esteem • If we do something wrong, it makes us feel better to blame outside factors, as opposed to blaming ourselves
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Errors in Attribution • However, if you suddenly swerved into the next lane because you were trying to avoid hitting a squirrel, you would know to attribute your erratic driving to the situation. Your explanation as to why you cut off the car in the next lane is the result of actor-observer bias, the tendency to explain the behavior of others as the result of internal or dispositional factors while attributing your behavior to external or situational factors.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. • Defensive Attribution • The tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way • Also know as “Just-World Bias” • “What terrible criminals these prisoners must have been to receive such treatment…”
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Errors in Attribution • A third common error in attribution that many people commit is known as the self-serving bias, the tendency to attribute success to internal or dispositional factors, while blaming any failure on external or situational factors. For example, if Ashley received and A on her psychology test, she would likely attribute it to the fact that she knew the material and had studied hard. However, if Ashley received and F on her psychology test, she might blame the grade on the fact that she had had to work late the night before the test or that the test had too many questions on material from previous chapters. Self-serving bias protects our sense of self and self-esteem.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Errors in Attribution • A fourth common error in attribution is known as unrealistic optimism, the belief that favorable events are more likely to occur to you than to other people. For example, Juan believes that he is more likely than Robert to pick the winning lottery numbers.
74.1 – Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we tend to explain other’s behavior and our own. Errors in Attribution • A final common error in attribution is known as self-handicapping, limiting one’s potential for success by offering explanations for failure before an event even takes place. For example, Chelsea has an important track meet that she is nervous about. During breakfast she complains to her teammate that her ankle is really hurting, and says she may not be able to run as fast as she could. Chelsea has provided an excuse for herself in case she doesn’t run well at the meet. However, if Chelsea does run well, her teammates will look admiringly on her for running despite her injury.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Attitudes • Attitudes, reactions to situations, events, or objects based on previous experiences with them, affect our lives every day. Imagine a friend asks whether you like a certain band; your response would indicate your attitude toward that band. Attitudes are beliefs (cognitions), feelings (emotions/affect), and behaviors you have toward situations, events, or objects, and are relatively unchanging. (Attitudes can change, but not readily). Attitudes are also said to predict behavior, but the correlation between attitudes and behavior is weak to moderate; this is known as the A-B problem, one’s attitudes do not necessarily predict future behavior. Just because a person has a particular attitude does not mean she will behave in a manner that is consistent with that attitude. Think of an actor who has spoken out against drug use, but who has then been back in the news because he or she is going to a drug rehabilitation center to resolve an addiction.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Attitudes • Positive or negative evaluations regarding objects of thought • Social issues • Capital punishment, guns… • Groups • Farmers, liberals... • Institutions • Catholic Church, Supreme Court… • Do attitudes always predict behavior?
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Forming Attitudes • Attitudes may include up to 3 different components • Cognitive Component • Beliefs about the object of an attitude • Affective Component • Emotional feelings stimulated by an object of thought • Behavioral Component • Predispositions to act in certain ways toward an attitude object
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Forming Attitudes • The simplest way to explain the formation of attitudes is through the lens of behaviorism. Many attitudes are formed through conditioning (classical or operant) and modeling. For example, research has shown that participants who were exposed to negative words (such as anger, hate, fascism) paired with a particular political party will have a negative attitude toward that party.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Forming Attitudes • Many parents model their behaviors and attitudes when raising their children, trying to tach them right from wrong. Children form attitudes by imitating those around them. For example, many elementary schools hold mock presidential elections during election years. Young children do not know enough about politics to make an informed decision; therefore, they rely on what they have heard at home to formulate their attitudes toward particular politicians.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Forming Attitudes • Another way in which attitudes are formed is through the mere exposure effect, in which the more a person is subjected to a novel stimulus, the more he or she will grow to enjoy the stimulus. Attitudes are often shaped by repeated exposure; this is similar to modeling in that the more one is exposed to an attitude or behavior, the more likely one is to display that exposed attitude or behavior in the future.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Attitudes can Affect Actions • not only do people stand for what they believe in (attitude), they start believing in what they stand for (attitudes can follow behavior) • Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Role Playing Affects Attitudes • In 1971, Stanford social psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted his infamous prison study. Zimbardo recruited 24 volunteers to serve as prisoners and guards in his prison simulation experiment. One goal of the experiment was to study the obedience levels of the prisoners. The study was supposed to take place over a span of 14 days. However, the experiment was halted after six days due to the internalization of roles by both “prisoners” and “guards”. According to Zimbardo, the guards began to act in ways that degraded and humiliated the prisoners, and he couldn’t justify continuing the experiment. The power of the situation and the role each person played became so ingrained in each man that they began to lose touch with reality. Zimbardo’s experiment proved that the context, or situation, can and will influence the behavior of the individual. • Role: set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Actions can Affect Attitudes • why do actions affect attitudes? • one explanation is that when our attitudes and actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance. We act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. • For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our attitudes closer to our actions.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. • Cognitive Dissonance Theory • The theory that we act to reduce the dissonance we feel when two our thoughts or attitudes are inconsistent • Example • A person who smokes, yet knows the health risks will either… • Stop smoking • Rationalize that nothing bad will happen to them
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Changing Attitudes • Trying to change a person’s attitudes is a difficult task. However, there are ways it can be done. The first is through the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, a persuasion model offering two distinct routes to persuasion: central and peripheral. The central route to persuasion involves careful examination of the message to determine that validity of the argument. An example of the central route of persuasion occurs after you read an article in a magazine and consider the author’s different points, trying to decide whether you agree with the article. The peripheral route to persuasion involves the use of outside factors to influence the validity of the argument. For example, many companies pay celebrities to endorse their products in television commercials. These celebrities make various claims about the products advertised. Does using a celebrity help in selling a product? Yes. When deciding what product to purchase, many people will rely on that most easily accessible information (availability heuristics) to make a decision, and if one company has used a well-known celebrity in its commercials, there is a good chance viewers will remember what the celebrity said – and will then purchase the product.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Changing Attitudes • Another way to elicit attitude change is through cognitive dissonance, discomfort resulting from conflicting cognitions and behaviors. Every person experiences cognitive dissonance, and we all seek to reduce the discomfort that results from it. To ease this discomfort a person is more likely to change an attitude than a behavior. For example, Laura believes that people should not download songs illegally off the Internet. However, after hearing a song on the radio she immediately went online and illegally downloaded the song herself. Laura is now experiencing cognitive dissonance because her attitude is different from her behavior. To ease this, Laura convinces herself that what she has done is insignificant because it’s only one song, and musical artist make a lot of money from their concerts. Laura’s behavior doesn’t match her attitude; therefore, she must change her attitude to reduce the discomfort she is experiencing.
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Changing Attitudes - Methods of Attitude Persuasion • Central Route Persuasion • Occurs when interested/analytical people focus on the arguments & respond with favorable thoughts • Example: Followers of world religions • Peripheral Route Persuasion • Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness or endorsements by respected people • Example: Kennedy v. Nixon (1960)
74.2 – Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether what we do affects what we think. Factors in Attitude Persuasion #1) Source (WHO) • Credibility • Expertise • Trustworthiness • Likability • Attractiveness • Similarity #2) Message (WHAT) • Fear appeal v. logic • One-sided v. two-sided argument • Number of strong or weak arguments • repetition #3) Channel (WHAT MEANS) • In person • On TV or radio • Via audiotape • Via internet • Via telephone #4) Receiver (TO WHOM) • Personality • Expectations • Initial attitude on issue • Strength or preexisting attitude
