Specific Learning Disabilities

Specific Learning Disabilities

Normal Intelligence Range • Terminology established in 1963 by Sam Kirk • Causation varied (minimal brain injury, perceptual disorders, IQ-achievement discrepancy, environmental, etc.)

Federal Definition ofSpecific Learning Disabilities

Federal Definition The majority of states use a definition based on the definition of the federal government. This definition, first signed into law in 1977, was—with few minor wording changes—adopted again in 1997 by the federal government:

Federal Definition • GENERAL—The long term “specific learning disability” means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations

Federal Definition B. DISORDERS INCLUDED—Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia

Federal Definition C. DISORDERS NOT INCLUDED—Such term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

Prevalence—Learning Disabilities • 5 – 6% of students ages 6 to 17 are learning disabled • Learning disabilities is the largest category in special education

Less Able Brilliant Able Average Smart Assessment of Intelligence Although the testing practices of today differ markedly from those of 4,000 years ago, when formal testing was first introduced, the premise has remained very much the same, to distinguish those who are successful at solving problems from those who are not.

The Influence of Alfred Binet The first effective test of intellectual ability was devised in the early 1900s by French psychologists Alfred Binet, Victor Henri, and Theodore Simon. Binet and Simon went to great lengths to differentiate between the concepts of natural intelligence and acquired intelligence. They were interested in measuring one’s capacity to learn rather than simply knowledge gained through instruction. Alfred Binet

The Influence of David Wechsler David Wechsler’s (1896-1981) influence on assessment in the schools has been profound. The Wechsler scales are a series of three individually administered intelligence tests, modeled after one another, in which a person’s intellectual abilities are described using a verbal/motor framework. The Wechsler scales have provided the preferred vehicle for the identification and classification of countless school-age children for nearly half a century. David Wechsler

Curriculum-Based Assessment Curriculum-Based Assessment (CBA) is a type of performance assessment that is widely used in special education. CBA strengthens the connection between assessment and instructors by evaluating the student in terms of the curricular requirements of the student’s own school or classroom. For example, if the student is expected to spell certain words in the classroom, the assessment measures the student’s performance on those words.

Criterion-Referenced Tests Criterion-referenced tests measure a student’s mastery of specific skills. For example, does the pupil recognize –ing endings? Does the student know the meaning of the prefix dis-? Can the student subtract single-digit numbers through 10? The teacher can set an acceptable criterion for mastery, such as 90 percent. When that performance level is reached, the student is taught the next skill in the sequence. Criterion-referenced tests describe rather than compare performance, measuring mastery levels rather than grade levels.

Formal Standardized Tests • norm-referenced • Ø The test is usually available in more than one form so that a student can be examined more than once without obtaining a high score due to practice. • Ø The test is accompanied by a manual giving directions for administration, scoring and interpretation. • Ø The manual contains grade norms, age norms, and possibly percentile ranks or some form of scaled scores. • The manual has information on validity (the degree to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure). The manual also shows reliability (consistency or similarity of performance). A reliability coefficient of 0.90 indicates that if the test were given to the student again, it is 90 percent likely that the student would obtain a score in the same range.

Commonly Used Academic Tests General Reading Tests • California Achievement Tests: Reading • Gates-MacGintie Reading Tests • Metropolitan Achievement Tests: Reading • SRA Achievement Series: Reading • Stanford Achievement Test: Reading

Commonly Used Academic Tests Diagnostic Reading Tests • Analytic Reading Inventory • DARTTS (Diagnostic Assessment of Reading with Trial Lessons) • Diagnostic Reading Inventory • Gates-McKillop-Horowitz Reading Diagnostic Tests • Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test • Test of Reading Comprehension (TORC) • Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests--Revised

Commonly Used Academic Tests Comprehensive Batteries of Academic Tests • California Achievement Tests • Iowa Tests of Basic Skills • Metropolitan Achievement Tests • SRA Achievement Series • Stanford Achievement Test • Wide-Range Achievement Test—III (WRAT-III)

Commonly Used Academic Tests Diagnostic Academic Tests and Test Batteries • Brigance Diagnostic Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skill • Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA) • Key Math--Revised • Peabody Individual Achievement Test—Revised (PIAT-R) • Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test • Test of Written Spelling—2 • Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery—Revised: Achievement Tests

Commonly Used Academic Tests Language Tests • Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation • Houston Test for Language Development • Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test • Test of Adolescent Language—2 (TOAL-2) • Test of Language Development—2 (TOLD-2) • Test of Language Development—2 Primary • Test of Written Language—2 (TOWL-2) • Test of Auditory Comprehension of Language--Revised

Less Able Brilliant Able Average Smart Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children Each child shall have a multifactored evaluation for initial placement that includes, but is not necessarily limited to, evaluations in the following areas: 1. General intelligence as determined through a measure of cognitive functioning administered by a qualified psychologist using a test designed for individual administration; + =

Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children Reading Comprehension Basic Reading Skills Mathematics Reasoning Mathematic Calculation 2. Academic Performance as measured through the use of standardized tests designed for individual administration which must include evaluation in the areas of:

Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children Hearing Vision Motor Abilities 3. Vision, hearing, and motor abilities;

Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children Oral Expression Listening Comprehension Written Expression 4. Communicative status, which must include assessments in the areas of:

Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children Gregarious Nonplussed Happy Love/Hate Relationships Familial Affection 5. Social and emotional status

Case history/interview Informal Measures Observation Formal Tests Methods of Obtaining Assessment Information Tom’s Portfolio

Alternative or Informal Assessment • Authentic/performance assessment • Teacher-made tests • Portfolio assessment • Dynamic assessment • Diagnostic teaching • Curriculum-based assessment • Rating scales • Criterion-referenced tests

E=MC2 CE2=M E=M2C MCE2=? E2=CM ME2=C Formal Standardized Tests These tests are also called norm-referenced because their scores are derived from their administration to a large group of children. 1. The test is usually available in more than one form so that a student can be examined more than once without obtaining a high score due to practice.

Formal Standardized Tests Scoring Administration Interpretation 2. The test is accompanied by a manual giving directions for:

Formal Standardized Tests Age Norms Grade Norms 3. The manual contains: % Percentile Ranks or some form of Scaled Scores

Formal Standardized Tests 4. The manual has information on validity (the degree to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure). A reliability coefficient of 0.90 indicates that if the test were given to the student again, it is 90 percent likely that the student would obtain a score in the same range. 80% 84% 81%

Reliability Are the test results consistent? Standardization On what group was the test standardized? Validity Does the test measure what it claims to measure? Adequacy of Formal Tests Used in Learning Disabilities The integrity of formal tests is judged on: = = Manipulation Rate of Puppets over 5 years

Tests of Mental Abilities and Mental Processes The purpose of general intelligence tests is to assess the global aspects of intellectual ability. These tests provide information about the student’s aptitude for learning and specific cognitive attributes. Commonly used individual intelligence tests that are typically administered by psychologists are the WISC-III (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Third Edition), the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, - Fourth Edition, and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC).

Freedom and Justice for All? WISC-III Verbal Tests These tests use oral language for administration and student responses. Their descriptions follow. What does the statue of liberty stand for? Information: In this test, the examiner orally presents a series of questions about common event; objects, places; and people. The child’s answers indicate knowledge about this common information.

WISC-III Verbal Tests They are both fruits? What do an apple and an orange have in common? Similarities: In this test, the examiner orally presents a series of pairs of words. The child explains the similarity of the common objects or concepts the words represent.

WISC-III Verbal Tests 9? Arithmetic: This test is a series of orally presented arithmetic problems. The child mentally solves the problems and responds orally.

WISC-III Verbal Tests Hand-Held Mechanical Inscriber? Pencil Vocabulary: This test is a series of orally presented words. The child orally defines the words.

WISC-III Verbal Tests What would you do if you found a stamped envelope lying on the ground? Open it to see if someone sent cash in the mail? Comprehension: This is a series of orally presented questions. Formulating the answer requires the child to solve everyday problems or to understand social rules and concepts.

WISC-III Verbal Tests 1,3, 5, 7, #%@&! 1, 3, 5, 7, 234 Digit Span: This test is a series of orally presented number sequences. The child must repeat verbatim the number sequences for digits forward and in reverse order for digits backwards.

WISC-III Performance Tests These tests are presented visually, and the subjects respond by performing some task. Their descriptions follow. An eyelet to the shoe is missing! Picture Completion: This test consists of a set of colorful pictures of common objects and scenes, each of which is missing an important part. The child identifies the missing part.

WISC-III Performance Tests 2 1 4 1 2 4 Coding: This test consists of a series of simple shapes (Coding A) or numbers (Coding B), each paired with a simple symbol. The child is required to draw the symbol in its corresponding shape (Coding A) or under its corresponding number(Coding B) according to a key.

WISC-III Performance Tests Man Riding Bicycle Man gets in Accident Man receives medical assistance Picture Arrangement: This is a set of colorful pictures presented in a mixed-up order. The child rearranges the pictures into a logical story sequence.

WISC-III Performance Tests Block Design: This test consists of a set of modeled or printed two-dimensional geometric patterns. The child replicates the patterns using two-color cubes.

WISC-III Performance Tests Object Assembly: This is a set of puzzles of common objects, each presented in a standardized configuration. The child assembles the puzzle parts to form a meaningful whole.

WISC-III Performance Tests Target Group Search Group Symbol Search: This is a series of paired groups of symbols, each pair consisting of a target group and a search group. The child scans the two groups and indicates whether a target symbol appears in the search group.

WISC-III Performance Tests Mazes: This test, printed in a response booklet, is a set of increasingly difficult mazes. The child solves the maze using a pencil.

Diagnostic Academic Tests and Test Batteries • Brigance Diagnostic Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skill • Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA) • Key Math- Revised • Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery- Revised: Achievement Tests • Peabody Individual Achievement Test- Revised (PIAT-R)

Specific Learning Disabilities