Introduction

1. Introduction ▪ Violent crime has the greatest impact on the public’s perception of crime in general. ▪ Americans fear violent crime more than any other type of criminal behavior, even though it is uncommon.

3. NCVS Trends for Violence Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://bjs.gov

4. Violent Crime Trends in the U.S. Important questions ▪ What explains criminal violence? • Why has violent crime declined across the United States? • Side note: why do 68-70% of Americans think crime is getting worse? (Gallop Poll, 2006-2011) ▪ Why, in contrast to other countries, does the United States experience stubbornly high levels of homicide?

5. Homicide ▪ Definition: the taking of life by another human ▪ Classification ▪ Justifiable homicide ▪ First-degree murder ▪ Second-degree murder ▪ Voluntary manslaughter ▪ Involuntary manslaughter

6. Murder Levels and Trends ▪ Lowest U.S. homicide rates since the 1950s • 4.7 per 100,000 in 2011 ▪ Still substantially higher than most other industrialized nations ▪ Highest in ▪ Southern region of U.S. ▪ Urban areas (“Murder Capitals”)

7. Source: Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2011).

10. Offender and Victim Characteristics (1 of 2) ▪ Statistics ▪ 90% of offenders = male ▪ 80% of victims = male ▪ Victims and offenders more likely to be young and (50%) African-American ▪ 85–95% of homicides = intraracial ▪ 66% of homicides = nonstrangers

12. Explaining America’s Homicide Rate Why are our homicide rates higher than other industrialized countries? 1. Firearm availability 2. Economic inequality 3. Frontier culture/legacy of violence

13. Firearm Availability ▪ Strong predictor of homicide rates ▪ U.S. household handgun ownership: 30% ▪ Most other industrialized nations: 1–14% ▪ U.S. non-gun homicide rate: 2.5 times higher than other industrialized nations ▪ U.S. gun-related homicide: 7.5 times higher than other industrialized nations

14. The Gun Control Debate ▪ Federal Gun Control Act ▪ Dealers must be licensed, document sales, refrain from selling guns to prohibited buyers, etc ▪ Brady Bill: Mandatory 5-day waiting period, Background checks ▪ Little evidence that they reduce homicide ▪ Secondary guns market is completely unregulated. ▪ Firearms can be purchased illegally. ▪ Firearms may be stolen or borrowed

15. Economic Inequality ▪ Institutional anomie theory, Elliott Currie’s “market society” ▪ High level of economic inequality ▪ Low level of social support ▪ Criticism = why does this effect homicide and not other forms of violence? U.S. similar to Canada and others for assaults and such.

16. American History ▪ Sociocultural tradition of violence? ▪ American Revolution ▪ Slavery ▪ Civil War ▪ Treatment of Native Americans ▪ Criticism: other nations with cultural histories of violence have low homicide rates today (Japan)

17. Rape and Sexual Assault ▪ Rape ▪ Unlawful sexual intercourse by force or without legal or factual consent • Debate on “force,” and issues of “initial consent” ▪ Sexual assault ▪ Defined as: any forced or coerced sexual intimacy

18. Rape Information ▪ One of the most underreported crimes ▪ The way rape or sexual assault is defined impacts estimates • Force vs. Coercion, Rape vs. Sexual Assault ▪ Certain types of rape are reported disproportionately • Stranger vs. Acquaintance

19. Why victims of rape and sexual assault do not report ▪ They do not want anyone to find out. ▪ They do not define what happened to them as rape (particularly in date or marital rape situations). ▪ They blame themselves. ▪ They do not want their friend, boyfriend, or husband to get in trouble. ▪ They fear how criminal justice personnel will treat them. ▪ They think nothing can be done. ▪ They just want to forget it and get on with their life.

20. Rape & Sexual Assault Estimates ▪ U.S. rape rate ▪ 63 per 100,000 women (UCR) ▪ National Violence Against Women survey ▪ 18% of women and 3% of men experienced (completed or attempted) rape over lifetime ▪ At higher education institutions, as high as 20 to 25% of women over college career ▪ Rape most likely perpetrated by non-strangers

21. Date Rape ▪ In the context of dating arrangement ▪ One of the most underreported rapes ▪ Largely unrecognized until the 1980s Date-rape drugs ▪ Examples: GHB, Rohypnol, and Ketamine ▪ Render the victim physically helpless ▪ Make the victim unable to remember

22. Date Rape ▪ Protective measures for “Rape drugs” ▪ Don’t accept drinks from other people except trusted friends. ▪ Open containers yourself. ▪ Keep your drink with you at all times, even when you go to the bathroom. ▪ Don’t share drinks. ▪ Don’t drink from punch bowls or other large, common, open containers. ▪ Have a nondrinking friend with you to make sure nothing happens.

23. Marital Rape ▪ Only recently legally recognized ▪ Greatly underreported ▪ Estimates 8–23% ▪ Strong relationship between battering and marital rape

24. Effects of victimization ▪ Physical injury ▪ Sexually transmitted disease ▪ Pregnancy ▪ Psychological effects ▪ Rape trauma syndrome ▪ Secondary victims

25. Explaining Rape and Sexual Assault ▪ Motivation of the offender ▪ Sex? ▪ Violence (sex as a weapon)? ▪ Political/cultural dominance?

26. Perspectives on Rape and Sexual Assault 1. Feminist explanation 2. Social learning perspective 3. Evolutionary perspective 4. Integrative perspectives

27. Feminist Explanation ▪ Rape = violence, not sex ▪ Maintain control and dominance ▪ Consequence of deep-seated social tradition ▪ Male dominance & Female exploitation ▪ Cross-cultural studies find a relationship between gender inequality and rape

28. Feminist Explanation ▪ Rape myths influence male behavior ▪ Women secretly desire to be raped, Women who dress or act seductively are asking to be raped, When a woman says “no” to a sexual advance, she actually means “yes.” • Masculine sex role socialization ▪ Aggressive, Forceful, Avoid being empathetic, Not relationship oriented

29. Social Learning Perspective(1 of 3) ▪ Sexual aggression learned ▪ Behavior shaped by balance of ▪ Role models ▪ Reinforcement/punishment ▪ Attitudes and values • Rape myths, other cognitive distortions as “negative reinforcement” • Socialization to sex roles • Lack of social skills to express sexuality normally

30. Pornography and Rape ▪ Reasons to suspect connection ▪ Reflection of patriarchy ▪ Makes women’s inequality/submission sexy ▪ Reinforces rape myths ▪ Provides role modeling for sexual violence ▪ Yet, no clear evidence to support this theory

31. Evolutionary Perspective ▪ Adaptive strategy to allow for more offspring ▪ Sexual coercion (“pushiness, aggression”) as adaptive ▪ If rape is a human thing (social structure, sex roles, etc) then why is there sexual coercion among animals?

32. Rape and Correctional Intervention ▪ Aversion therapy ▪ Chemical castration ▪ Cognitive-behavioral programs ▪ Eliminate cognitive distortions ▪ Teach cognitive skills ▪ Self-control ▪ Problem solving ▪ Anger management • EMPATHY

33. The Criminal Justice Response to Rape (1 of 2) ▪ Often difficult for the victim (“Re-victimize”) ▪ Must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that a crime occurred ▪ Police officers: interrogation ▪ Defense attorneys: must advocate for defendant ▪ Prosecutors: represent the state, must build solid case, difficult to prove coercion

34. The Criminal Justice Response to Rape (2 of 2) ▪ Hospital as key institution for investigation ▪ Medical examination ▪ Collection of physical evidence ▪ Reluctant partner ▪ Proposed solution: rape crisis center ▪ Primary interface between victims and other agencies ▪ Sole focus on victim support

35. Robbery ▪ Taking of another person’s property ▪ Includes the possibility of force or violence ▪ Statistics ▪ Decreasing since the early 1990s ▪ 30% of all serious violent crimes recorded

36. Characteristics of Robbery and Robbers ▪ Majority perpetrated by a stranger ▪ May involve multiple offenders ▪ Often interracial crime ▪ Majority young, African-American, male ▪ Common locations of robberies ▪ Street (43%) ▪ Restaurants/stores (15%) ▪ Residences (14%)

37. Explaining Robbery (1 of 2) ▪ Primary motivation: money and/or property ▪ Secondary motivations ▪ Maintain a street reputation of “bad ass” ▪ Fuel participation in street culture ▪ Psychological thrill ▪ Intimidation ▪ Revenge

38. Robbery and Rationality (1 of 2) ▪ Rational approach to robbery ▪ Less time than alternatives ▪ Yields cash ▪ Avoids middlemen ▪ Prey on vulnerable victims (especially those involved in crime)

39. Robbery and Rationality (2 of 2) ▪ Situational crime prevention ▪ Target-hardening techniques ▪ Individuals should avoid being vulnerable targets ▪ Travel in groups ▪ Avoid displaying cash in public places ▪ Refrain from criminal activity

40. Assault (1 of 2) ▪ Aggravated assault ▪ Unlawful attack to inflict injury on a person ▪ Usually involves a weapon ▪ Simple assault ▪ Does not involve a weapon ▪ Does not result in serious injury

41. Assault (2 of 2) ▪ Estimated 40–60% of assaults reported ▪ Reasons for not reporting ▪ Assault involves family members ▪ Fear of reprisal ▪ Failure to view the assault as serious ▪ Desire to keep the matter private ▪ Characteristics of assault ▪ Perpetrators overwhelmingly young males ▪ Similar to homicide

42. General Explanations for Violent Crime 1. Neighborhood level explanation of violence 2. Individual level explanations of violence 3. Gender and violence

43. Neighborhood Level Explanation of Violence (1 of 2) ▪ Violent crime more likely to occur in urban areas characterized by ▪ Extreme poverty ▪ Physical decay ▪ Residential mobility ▪ Social disorganization theory ▪ Weak/absent neighborhood institutions and processes ▪ Cultural transmission of deviant values

44. Individual Level Explanations of Violence ▪ Social Learning Theory ▪ Violence is learned ▪ Operant conditioning ▪ Vicarious learning ▪ Mass media violence ▪ Exposure may increase violent crime ▪ Real role models more important than virtual ones ▪ Intimate personal groups ▪ Intergenerational transmission of violence ▪ Feelings of isolation or rejection

45. Gender and Violence ▪ Biological differences ▪ Physical ▪ Physiological ▪ Masculine sex-role socialization ▪ Competitiveness ▪ Aggressiveness ▪ Lack of emotionality ▪ Conducive to violence

46. Explaining the Violence Drop ▪ Police tactics ▪ Increase in prison populations ▪ Economic conditions ▪ Changes in demographics ▪ Cultural shift ▪ Role of illicit drugs