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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

2. Cognitive development focuses on how children learn and process information. It is the development of the thinking and organizing systems of the brain.It involves language, mental imagery, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and memory development. Learning is a relatively permanent chan

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

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    1. 1 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

    2. 2 Cognitive development focuses on how children learn and process information. It is the development of the thinking and organizing systems of the brain. It involves language, mental imagery, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and memory development. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

    3. 3 Do children think and develop cognitively like adults? It was believed that they did until a Swiss psychologist – Jean Piaget – observed his own children and others and concluded that in many respects children do not think or reason like adults.

    4. 4 JEAN PIAGET Swiss child psychologist 1896 – 1980.

    5. 5 Perspectives of Cognitive Development Structural-functional approach Information processing approach

    6. 6 Structural-functional approach Developed by Jean Piaget According to Piaget, “intelligence” has two components: structures and functions. He believed that psychological structures- the child’s organized way of making sense of experience- change with age. He referred to these specific structures as schemes.  

    7. 7 Structures are involved in the processing of information (such as schema – organized mental representation of the world that is adaptive and formed by experience) Functions help a child adapt to his or her environment. Unlike structures, which change with age, functions remain the same throughout development. Piaget believes that at each stage of development a child uses a qualitatively different form of intelligence.

    8. 8 Information processing approach An approach which has moved beyond the framework described by Piaget. Focuses on quantitative changes in basic information processing systems like memory, attention, and learning. This means that the child becomes a faster, more efficient processor of information, as the child grows these functions get better. They believe we are born with certain cognitive abilities that grow and develop into better cognitive abilities.

    9. 9 Two most basic FUNCTIONS for Piaget Adaptation- involves building schemas through direct interaction with the environment. It consist of two complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation. Organization- takes place internally. Once children form new schemas, they start to rearrange them, linking them with others. Initially, these schemas operate independently but with development they are organized into an integrated behavior.

    10. 10 Assimilation and Accommodation Assimilation- Through assimilation we use our current schemes to interpret the external world. It occurs when we incorporate new information into an existing schema. Accommodation- changing or revising an existing schema as a result of new experiences. We create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not fit the environment completely.

    11. 11 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development   Called a stage theory: (see handout) Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years) Preoperational stage (2 years-7 years) Concrete Operational stage (7 years -11 years) Formal Operations stage (12 years and up)

    12. 12 Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory He underestimated: the cognitive talents of infants and young children, eg. Object permanence. young children's understanding of conservation. the importance of social interactions between children and caregivers in the children’s cognitive development. Piaget’s theory gives little attention to the impact of language development.

    13. 13 However, Piaget’s theory made great contributions to the field of Psychology. He showed that children are not passive during the development process but rather active participants in their own cognitive development.

    14. 14 Moral Development

    15. 15 Refers to changes in the ability to reason about what is right and what is wrong in a given situation. Lawrence Kohlberg has a stage theory of moral development. Kohlberg came up with 3 levels of moral development with two stages at each level. Result- six stages of moral development: (Table 8.3 – page 309 OR see class handout)  

    16. 16 Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory One criticism states that we have to consider the cross-cultural aspect. Concern about gender differences in moral development of morality. Does Kohlberg’s theory apply to females? Concern with the consistency of moral judgments.

    17. 17 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND TEMPERAMENT

    18. 18 At what age do infants begin to experience and demonstrate discrete emotions? Research in this area focuses on facial expression – outward signs of distinct emotions.   2 month old infants demonstrate social smiling in response to human faces.   2 month old infants show pain expressions more than anger expressions. A few months later they show anger more frequently than pain. 3- 4 month old infants show laughter.

    19. 19 3-months they become upset when their mothers are upset. As they grow older, infants acquire increasing capacities to “read” the emotional expressions of others. 8- 10 months, they actively seek information about other people’s feelings and begin to demonstrate growing understanding of their own mental states and those of others. Age 1, when a child falls he/she will look to their caregiver and depending on their caregiver’s reaction they will either cry or laugh.  

    20. 20 WHAT IS TEMPERAMENT? Stable individual differences in characteristic, mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity. Differences in temperament are present early in life

    21. 21 3 categories of temperaments : Easy children – (40%) generally cheerful, adapt readily to new experiences and quickly establishes routines for many activities of daily life. Difficult children – (10%) are irregular in daily routines, are slow to accept new situations or experiences and show negative reactions more than other infants. Slow--to-warm-up-children – (15%) relatively inactive and apathetic and show mild negative reactions when exposed to unexpected event or new situations. Remaining 35% cannot be classified.  

    22. 22 ATTACHMENT

    23. 23 Strong affectional bond between infants and their caregivers According to a theory developed by John Bowlby, attachment involves a balance b/w infant’s tendencies to seek to be near to their caregivers and their willingness to explore new environments. Bowlby contended that the quality of attachment is revealed by the infant’s reaction to separation b/w themselves and their caregivers, as well as, their reaction to the return of their caregiver(s).

    24. 24 “STRANGE SITUATION TEST” A situation in which a caregiver leaves a child alone with a stranger for a few minutes and then returns. Researchers proposed 4 patterns of attachment. Secure attachment Ambivalent Attachment Avoidant Attachment Disorganized attachment

    25. 25 SECURE ATTACHMENT An appropriate display of distress when caregivers depart and then a warm and enthusiastic greeting upon their return. Parents of these children tend to respond quickly and appropriately to the behaviors of the child. Distress is met with comfort.  

    26. 26 INSECURE/ AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT Intense clinging and resistance to separation. When parent returns the child goes b/w approach and avoidance of the caregiver. Parents of these children appear inconsistent in their responses to their child. At times, they respond appropriately and other times they respond inappropriately or fail to respond.

    27. 27 INSECURE/AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT Failure to express distress on departure of parents and then avoidance of parent on return. Parents of these babies appear aloof, detached, rejecting and neglectful. Children learn that their caregivers are not available and cannot be trusted.  

    28. 28 DISORGANIZED ATTACHMENT Also called disoriented attachment Behavior is inconsistent and contradictory. Child may begin to approach the returning parent and then turn away or behave in a confused manner – neither approaching nor avoiding, but rather freezing.

    29. 29 LONG TERM EFFECTS OF ATTACHMENT STYLES Secured attached infants are more sociable, more tolerant of frustration and more flexible and persistent in many situations. As adults they able to use their partners as a secure base and serve as a secure base for their partners when compared to adults who experienced insecure attachment as a child. Seen as happier and more trusting in adult relationships. People who were avoidantly attached seem to worry constantly about losing their romantic partners; they didn’t trust their caregivers as infants and don’t trust their spouses or lovers when they are adults.

    30. 30 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ADOLESENCE ADULTHOOD

    31. 31 ADOLESCENCE

    32. 32 Period of time from the dependence of childhood to the independence of adulthood. Begins with puberty (sexual maturity = readiness to reproduce) and lasts through the teen years. Onset of puberty marked by 2 biological changes: physical changes -increase height and weight – known as a growth spurt sexual maturation.

    33. 33 Cognitive Development during Adolescence Development of problem-solving skills, an increased reliance on the use of symbols, logic and abstract thinking. Capable of logical thought, but not all adolescents demonstrate this kind of thinking (Formal Operations Stage- Piaget).

    34. 34 Social and Emotional Development during Adolescence   Adolescence can be a time of turmoil, joy, confusion, depression (mood swings), increased drug use and sexuality - an overall challenging period in life. It is believed that adolescents are emotional – have swings of mood. Studies show that adolescents have more swing in moods when compared to older individuals.

    35. 35 CHALLENGES OF ADOLESCENT PERIOD DRUG USE- increase in the use of marijuana and alcohol. Exploring other drugs SEXUALITY- Adolescence is marked by an increase in sex hormones. Sex hormones give rise to sex drives which lead to sexual behaviors.  

    36. 36 PARENTING STYLES & THEIR EFFECTS ON ADOLESCENTS Authoritarian – restrictive and rejecting. Children are later seen as insecure, apprehensive, socially withdrawn, and low in both self-reliance and self-control. Authoritative parenting – parental warmth, and inductive and nonpunitive style of discipline (talking and explaining), consistency in child rearing. Children are socially assertive, competent, and responsible.

    37. 37 Rejecting/ Neglectful parenting – parent lack involvement and supervision with their children. Children are irresponsible, even about matters that affect physical health and well being. Indulgent/ Permissive parenting – parents don’t have rules and give into their children. Associated with children that are involved in drug and alcohol and are indisciplined (misconduct in school). Which would you consider to be the ideal style? Which style do you believe is most evident in the Caribbean situation?

    38. 38 CHECK FOR MORE INFORMATION ON PARENTING STYLES 1. Impact of Parenting Styles - Alfred Adler ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/hstein/parentin.htm – 2. Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). www.personal.psu.edu/users/k/x/kxg190/ teaching/parenting_styles.html

    39. 39 Social Development: Friendship and the Quest for Identity During this period the adolescent is trying to answer the question, Who Am I? One way to answer that question is through the formation of friendships. Adolescent try to seek relationships with people who are similar to them – gender and interest.

    40. 40 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages/Theory of Development 8 stages (see class handout)

    41. 41 Family Configuration and its Effects on the Adolescent Divorced Parent-Absent Blended Families

    42. 42 DIVORCE More than ˝ of marriages end in divorce – means that a large proportion of children and adolescents will spend part of their lives in one-parent homes. Adolescents react to divorce with fear, anxiety, and guilt.

    43. 43 PARENT-ABSENT HOMES Adolescents in parent-absent homes (typically father is absent) – have an increased risk for delinquency, depression, anxiety, impaired cognitive and school performance, and difficulties in forming meaningful relationships.

    44. 44 BLENDED (STEP) FAMILIES Children reared in blended (step) families are more likely to have problems with aggression, school dropout, and drug abuse when compared to children from nuclear families.

    45. 45 ADULTHOOD As an adult, health may become a concern. Psychological adjustments need to be made to marriage, parenthood, career, the death of friends and family, retirement, and ultimately, one’s own death

    46. 46 Development during Early Adulthood   Stage 6 – Early/Young adulthood is a time for finding our niche, for working through aspirations, of our youth, for raising a family. It is also a period of stress, finding the “right” job, taking on parenthood, and maintaining a balance among self, family, job and society at large.

    47. 47 Challenges of Early- Middle Adulthood Marriage and family Transition to parenthood Career choice

    48. 48 Marriage and Family Stage 6- intimacy vs. isolation Three factors influence the choice of marriage partner. Availability – need the opportunity to develop the relationship first Eligibility – age, race, religion, politics, and background comes into play here. Attractiveness – physical attractiveness, psychological attractiveness – understanding, emotional supportiveness and similarity in values and goals.

    49. 49 2. The Transition to Parenthood Stage 7 – Adulthood/Middle Adulthood – concern for family and future generations, becoming parents. Changes in marriage – relationship becomes more stressful, have less time for each other, less spontaneity. Marital satisfaction goes down during the child rearing years, but increases when the children leave the nest.  

    50. 50 3. Career Choice Choice of occupation and satisfaction goes a long way toward self-esteem and identity.   Stage 7 Women experience menopause, men sometimes experience mid-life crisis.  

    51. 51 Development during Late Adulthood

    52. 52 Stage 8 – Maturity/Later Adulthood – during this period children have long left the nest and now there are grandchildren. Retirement is welcomed by most. With age, mental speed is reduced, memory loss is apparent, some sensory capacity diminish Ageism – is the name given to discrimination and prejudice against a group on the basis of age.  

    53. 53 Death and Dying   Elizabeth Kubler-Ross – 1960s. - Stage theory 1). Denial – a firm, simple avoidance of the evidence; a sort of “no this can’t be happening to me” reaction. 2). Anger – often accompanied by resentment and envy of others, along with a realization of what is truly happening; a sort of “Why me? Why not someone else?” reaction.

    54. 54 3). Bargaining – a matter of dealing, or bartering, usually with God: a search for more time: a sort of “If you’ll just grant me a few more weeks, or months, I’ll go to church every week: no, every day” reaction. 4). Depression – a sense of hopelessness that bargaining won’t work, that a great loss is imminent; a period of grief and sorrow over both past mistakes and what will be missed in the future. 5). Acceptance – a rather quiet facing of the reality of death, with no great joy or sadness, simply a realization that the time has come.

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