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Introduction

These slides contain: Summaries of some of the main contents of European Dictatorships (with page references) Additional material: Historical Historiographical Instructions. Go on to Slide Show > View Show. This will activate: Slide transitions Slide and box animations

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Introduction

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  1. These slides contain: Summaries of some of the main contents of European Dictatorships (with page references) Additional material: Historical Historiographical Instructions. Go on to Slide Show > View Show. This will activate: Slide transitions Slide and box animations Hyperlinks within this PowerPoint Links to other websites for: Illustrations Text Other links Title page follows Introduction

  2. EUROPEAN DICTATORSHIPS1918 - 1945THIRD EDITION ROUTLEDGE 2008 Supporting PowerPoint1 Setting for Dictatorship STEPHEN J. LEE

  3. Which countries were dictatorships?

  4. European dictatorships (Details in European Dictatorships 2) Dictatorships by 1938 D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D

  5. Dictatorships dismantled by other dictatorships 1938-42(Details in European Dictatorships 2) Totalitarian dictatorships by 1938 D D D Authoritarian dictatorships dismantled by totalitarian dictatorships 1938-43 D D D D D Authoritarian dictatorships in alliance with totalitarian dictatorships after 1940 D D D D Authoritarian dictatorships remaining outside control of totalitarian dictatorships D D D D D D D D D

  6. European democracies(Details in European Dictatorships 2) Dictatorships by 1938 D D D Democracies dismantled by dictatorships 1938-40 D D Remaining democracies in 1940 D D D D D D D D D D D D D

  7. Principal European dictators(Details in European Dictatorships xii-xv) 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 Russia LENIN STALIN Italy MUSSOLINI Germany HITLER Portugal SALAZAR Spain PRIMO DE RIVERA FRANCO Austria DOLFUSS SCHUSCHNIGG Hungary K HORTHY S Poland PIŁSUDSKI Baltic States SMETONA, ULMANIS, PÄTS Yugoslavia ALEXANDER PAVELIC Albania ZOG Romania CAROL ANTONESCU Bulgaria BORIS Greece METAXAS Turkey MUSTAFA KEMAL ATATüRK

  8. Overall argument of Chapter 1: The setting for dictatorship(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 5) 1 Europe before World War I was already in a state of uncertainty and crisis. 2 This was exacerbated by World War I … 3 … and by the peace settlement which followed it. 4 In the period after World War I democracy was tried – but gave way to dictatorship in many places. 5 This was influenced by attitudes to modernization … 6 … and affected by economic crisis

  9. The period before 1914

  10. Pre-War developments contributing to the emergence of dictatorship(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 5-8) 1 Rapid changes: technological development, population growth, industrialization, development of working class 2 Politicization of the masses and the development of mass politics 3 ‘Fin de siècle’ and ‘intellectual crisis of the 1890s’ (Sternhell et al.) 4 Criticism of parliamentarianism 5 Development of the far left: Sorelian syndicalism, revolutionary Marxism 6 Development of far right: Social Darwinism, anti-Semitism, ultra-nationalism, völkisch groups 7 Convergence of far left and far right 8 Growing instability of traditionalist regimes 9 Rapid growth of nationalism at different levels 10 Glamorization of violence

  11. The impact of World War I

  12. Impact of World War as a contribution to the rise of dictatorship(Details in European Dictatorships 5-8) 1 Casualties, impact on economies, depletion of resources, exhaustion of armies. 2 Defeat was a catalyst for revolution (see 3, 4, 5). 3 Military defeat was a factor in revolutions in Russia 4 Military defeat was a factor in the collapse of Austria-Hungary. Long-term complications contributed to the rise of dictatorship. 5 Military defeat was a factor in the collapse of Imperial Germany. Long-term complications contributed to the rise of Nazism. 6 Although World War created he conditions for he establishment of democratic regimes, it also provided impossible obstacles for these to surmount (see 7,8,9) 7 The terms of the peace settlement were widely resented. 8 Economic instability was aggravated by war debts and reparations payments. 9 Destruction of empires which had helped constrain nationalism, communism and fascism.

  13. Pre-war influences and the influences of World War I compared(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 11-12) Was World War I more influential than pre-War developments? Bracher, Payne, Kershaw argue that it was. Their explanations in ED 11 But in Germany and Russia the war can also be seen as an ‘accelerator’ and ‘distorter’ of pre-1914 developments Arguments in ED 11-12 Was the collapse of Tsarist Russia inevitable with or without World War I? Arguments in ED 11-12

  14. The impact of World War I on three empires RUSSIA Finland To Denmark Estonia Latvia Lithuania GERMANY To France Poland Czechoslovakia Rom ania AUSTRIA - HUNGARY Austria Hungary Yugo- slavia To Italy

  15. The Peace Settlement and its significance

  16. Peace treaties signed 1918-23(Details in European Dictatorships 12-15) TREATY Dealt with: Signed on: TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK Russia March 1918 Paris Settlement 1919-23 TREATY OF VERSAILLES Germany 28 June 1919 TREATY OF ST GERMAIN Austria 10 July 1919 TREATY OF NEUILLY Bulgaria 27 November 1919 TREATY OF TRIANON Hungary 4 June 1920 TREATY OF SÈVRES Turkey 20 August 1920 TREATY OF LAUSANNE Turkey September 1923

  17. Territorial changes made to the three great empires by the peace treaties Treaty of Brest-Litovsk RUSSIA Finland To Denmark Estonia Latvia Lithuania Treaty of Versailles GERMANY To France Poland Czechoslovakia Rom ania AUSTRIA - HUNGARY Austria Hungary Yugo- Treaties of St Germain and Trianon slavia To Italy

  18. Influences on the peace settlement(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 12-13) Idealism? • President Wilson’s Fourteen Points 1918 • National self-determination • - US detachment from European problems Revanchism? - Clemenceau’s concern with French security and revenge Pragmatism? - Lloyd George’s attempt to steer between Wilson and Clemenceau and to achieve a compromise

  19. Treaty of Versailles 1919 (Details and comments in European Dictatorships 13) Terms A fair settlement? (see ED 13-14) Article 231: War Guilt Clause NO: Contemporaries: J.M. Keynes, Harold Nicolson. The settlement lacked wisdom and the economic terms were ‘inexpedient and disastrous.’ Territorial losses: - Alsace Lorraine to France - Eupen and Malmédy to Belgium - N. Schleswig to Denmark (after plebiscite) - Posen, West Prussia to Poland - S. Silesia to Poland (after plebiscite) - All overseas colonies Historians of the 1920s such as Dawson. Germany’s ‘bleeding frontiers’. Military terms: - Limits to navy - No airforce - Army of 100,000 volunteers - Demilitarization of Rhineland YES: Contemporaries: Those who drew up the Treaty argued that Germany’s military and economic power needed to be cut back. Recent historians such as such as Néré, Trachtenberg, McDougall: France suffered more severely than Germany from the war and had a powerful claim to compensation. • Economic terms: • Confiscation of quantities of merchant shipping • and rolling stock • Saar region to be exploited by France • Reparations (finalised in 1921 at 136,000 million • gold marks

  20. Treaties of St Germain (1919), Neuilly (1919), Trianon (1920), Sèvres (1920) and Lausanne (1923) (Details and comments in European Dictatorships 14-15) Terms • St Germain (Austria) and Trianon (Hungary): • Czechoslovakia formed from provinces of • Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, Ruthenia. • Romania received Transylvania and Bukovina • Serbia (Yugoslavia) received Dalmatia, Bosnia- • Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia • Sèvres (Turkey): • Mandate of Arab provinces (Transjordan, • Palestine and Iraq to Britain; Syria and Lebanon to • France) • Hejaz joined to rest of Arabia • Greece received Smyrna for 5 years, E Thrace, • Aegean islands • Italy received Rhodes and Dodecanese • - Straits internationalized • Neuilly (Bulgaria): • Greece received Aegean coastline and W. Thrace • Romania received Dobrudja • Serbia (Yugoslavia) received parts of Macedonia) • Lausanne (Turkey): • E. Thrace restored to Turkey • Smyrna withdrawn from Greece • Rhodes and Dodecanese withdrawn from Italy

  21. The crisis of democracy

  22. Characteristics of democracy, according to Kohn (Details and comments in European Dictatorships 15) 1 … ‘open-minded critical enquiry’ … 2 … ‘mutual regard and compromise’… 3 … opposition functioning as ‘a legitimate partner in the democratic process’… 4 … ‘a pluralistic view of values and associations’ … 5 … a refusal to identify totally with ‘one party or with one dogma’ … 6 … recognition of the fundamental values of ‘individual liberty’ … 7 … ‘freedom of the enquiring mind’ …

  23. Features introduced to give democracy effect (Details and comments in European Dictatorships 15-16) 1 • Introduction of Proportional representation: • - Belgian system as adapted in 1918 by the Dutch. • Related number of votes to size of party in parliament and • established a national pool for smaller groups. • Used in Germany, Poland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Estonia, • Latvia, Lithuania, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Balkan states. 2 Increase in size of electorate in most states. 3 Extension of the franchise to women.

  24. Initial democracies in post-war Europe

  25. Democracy under strain(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 16-18) 1 Economic crisis: inflation in 1920s, depression in the 1930s 2 Racial instability as a result of conflicting ethnic groups 3 Social disruption caused by class conflicts 4 Problems with political parties: - Liberal parties depleted - Populist parties moved to the right - Conservative parties became more authoritarian - Parties of the left saw a conflict between socialists and communists 5 Proportional Representation failed to maintain political stability by encouraging splinter parties. 6 Some constitutions had emergency powers which could be abused (e.g. Article 48 in the constitution of the Weimar Republic. 7 Absence of really popular democratic statesmen between he wars.

  26. The role of modernity

  27. Influence of modernity: approaches(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 18-20) Some historians have argued that: For Germany and Italy, dictatorship was part of their path to modernization. Others have pointed to the following destabilizing effects of modernization: 1 Resentment of Taylorism as a means of speeding up production, leading to: 2 Trade union opposition and strikes 3 Industrialists looking to authoritarian systems to control 2 4 Worsening of class divisions within society 5 Growing appeal of the far left and the far right as a result There is a strong argument for the impact of modern communications technologies: 1 Persuasiveness of public speaking magnified by loudspeakers 2 Use of knowledge of crowd psychology 3 Banners with modernized images 4 Parades, uniforms, marching songs 5 Rallies, radio, posters, cinema, simplified and targeted electoral messages 6 Emphasis on ‘gigantomania’

  28. The economic impact

  29. The first crises: 1920s(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 21) These followed the First World War: RUSSIA: War Communism (1918-21) and New Economic Policy from 1921 ITALY: Economic collapse, inflation, rise of Mussolini by 1922 GERMANY: Reparations 1921, hyperinflation 1921-3

  30. Recovery?(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 21-2) System for international financial recovery under the Dawes Plan (1924) and Young Plan 1929 Britain France Belgium Reparations: $2.0 billion War debts: $2.6 billion Germany United States Loans: $2.5 billion Did this work?

  31. Vulnerability of economies in late 1920s and early 1930s (Details and comments in European Dictatorships 21-2) 1 Eastern Europe less affected by economic upswing 2 Industrial growth in Western Europe not accompanied by proportionate increase in volume of trade 3 Agricultural overproduction in Western Europe and the United States resulted in fall in agricultural prices 1925-9 4 Industrial growth depended too heavily on American short-term loans. Withdrawals resulted in sudden increases in unemployment 5 Operation of the gold standard was distorted by the accumulation of most of the world’s gold reserves in the United States 6 Europe’s prosperity linked to that of the United States 7 Devastating impact of Wall Street Crash (1929) and … 8 … collapse of Kredit Anstaldt 1931

  32. Depression: economic impact(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 22-3) 1 30% decline in total world industrial production from 1929 levels 2 42% decline in trade and manufactured goods 3 11% decline in food output 4 19% decline in raw materials Germany Most severely affected. Unemployment over 6 million Czechoslovakia Impact on the Sudetenland E. Europe Destroyed trade in agricultural goods USSR In theory insulated from depression. In practice affected by drop in price of exported grain

  33. Depression: political impact(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 23-4) Hughes: The crisis of capitalism was also a crisis of liberalism and democracy. Sweden, Denmark : use of consensus politics. Germany : collapse of coalitions and rise of authoritarian regime which put Nazis into power Britain: National Government from 1931 Eastern Europeand Balkans: use of emergency powers to replace democratic systems Democracy survived in: Democracy collapsed in: France: broad-based coalitions (e.g. Blum’s Popular Front 1936) Portugal and Austria: emergence of authoritarian regimes For impact on international relations see European Dictatorships 24

  34. End of PowerPoint 1

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