How to Write a Paper

1. How to Write a Paper A.P.A. Format

2. To explore a topic of interest critically, and to share what you have learned in a written format. It combines your ideas with those of published authors. Presents an argument or gives an analysis of a topic. The Purpose of a Paper…

3. Getting Started Overview: • Step One: Narrow your topic and generate a research question (what do I want to know?) • Step Two: Break it up into smaller questions • Step Three: Find information • Step Four: Organize information • Step five: Formulate your argument

4. Caution! • If you leave an essay topic too broad, it will be superficial. • If your essay topic is narrow, you can deal with it in depth.

5. Taking Notes • This is a difficult but IMPORTANT part of researching the paper. • Take notes as your read. • Summarize information in your own words. (Focus on the main idea) • Paraphrase information. • Find quotes that support your thesis/research question. • DO NOT PLAGIARIZE!!!!! • Use credible, reliable sources…

6. Evaluating your sources • Author/Organization (Are they an expert? Do they have an agenda? Bias?) • Language(Strong? Vague? Positive? Negative?) • Quality of argument (What information are they basing it on?) • Your source’s sources (How/where did they get their information?)

7. Notes to Remember… Do not use contractions in a formal essay. For example, use do not instead of don’t. Do not write in the first person. For example, use “One may think” instead of stating “I think” Write out numbers 1 to 10, and any other short number. Seven, eight, nine, ten, 11, 12, 13, 14.

8. Do Not Plagiarize!!!!! It is a serious offence! Plagiarism will be dealt with by administration! You must give credit for other people’s ideas, opinions or theories!!!!

9. Organizing your information: Remember: • It is easier to assemble all the data BEFORE writing the paper, than during the process. Outline: • It may be helpful to produce an outline of your essay, to serve as a roadmap for your research paper. • Your outline will help organize your paper into several basic parts: • Introduction • Main body paragraphs • Conclusion • References

10. Title Page • Center the title approximately in the middle of the page. • Do Not underline or place quotation marks around the title unless it happens to be a quote or the title of a literary work. • Capitalize the first letter in the title and all other words except prepositions. • Double-space the following under the title: your Name, Course (Block), Teacher’s Name and date. • Page #’s are to be placed in the upper right hand corner of every page, including the title page and reference page. • Use an abbreviated title, which is 5 spaces to the left of the page number. • Do not use periods or brackets around the #.

11. Example of Title Page Abb. Title 1 An Original Title Your Name African Canadian Studies 11 B-Block Ms. Reid Due Date

12. Introduction: • Introduction – Provides background information to the reader about the issue you are dealing with and allows you to state a research question or thesis. • The first paragraph is crucial for catching the attention of the audience and for conveying to them the importance of the questions that you have addressed in the paper. • If you do not catch the attention of the audience in the first few sentences the chances are high that they will not want to continue reading.

13. Introduction Things not to do: • Do not say “In this paper I will…” or “The purpose of this essay…” • Do not use a dictionary or encyclopedia definition to start your essay.

14. Introduction…some ideas • The introduction should be designed to attract the reader’s attention and give an idea of the essay’s focus. Begin with an attention grabber. Option 1: Startling Information This information must be true and verifiable, and it doesn’t need to be totally new to your readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact that explicitly illustrates the point you wish to make. If you use a piece of startling information, follow it with a sentence or two of elaboration.

15. Introduction…some ideas Option 2:Anecdote An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point. Be sure your anecdote is short, to the point, and relevant to your topic. This can be a very effective opener for your essay, but use it carefully.

16. Introduction…some ideas Option 3: Summary InformationA few sentences explaining your topic in general terms can lead the reader gently to your thesis. Each sentence should become gradually more specific, until you reach your thesis. If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two, add one or two more sentences that will lead the reader from your opening to your thesis statement. Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.

17. Introduction Introductory Paragraph(at least 5 sentences): This paragraph must introduce your topic and present your thesis. Opening Sentence • Grab the reader’s attention with something interesting and specific to your topic. Avoid sweeping generalizations (Throughout time… People always wonder about…) as they are too vague and meaningless. Subsequent Sentences • Provide a general overview of the topic. What does the reader need to know before he/she is able to understand your thesis? What is the context? • Define any key concepts and terms central to the focus of your essay. Thesis Statement • In one sentence clearly state your position and briefly outline your supporting arguments. • Present your arguments in the same order in which you will address them in your essay. • Example: Human cloning is unethical because it erodes human individuality, creates emotional and psychological trauma for the cloned child, and eliminates necessary biological gene selection.

18. Thesis Statement • The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay will be about, and what point you, the author, will be making. It maps out the paper as it suggests an order or direction for the paper’s development. A good thesis statement often answers the questions How? and Why?

19. Thesis Statement • Answers the question, “What is this paper trying to prove to its audience?” • Compresses the critical crux of your paper into one sentence. • Conveys your main argument in a nutshell. • Uses specific language and specific ideas. • Generates a multi-faceted argument.

20. Examples of Thesis Statements • A thesis should be arguable. Reasonable people should be able to disagree with your thesis. It’s not interesting if people cannot dispute it. It needs to be controversial enough so people want to continue reading. • A thesis is supported by strong arguments. It’s important to discuss the best arguments in favor of your thesis in addition to addressing the strongest ones that go against it. • A thesis takes some sort of stand. You must draw your own conclusions and support them by research.

21. Examples of Thesis Statements: • A thesis is limited. This means that you zero in on the parts of your topic that you wish to focus on. Otherwise you could go on and on forever (in theory). Example: There are many advantages to having professional sports teams in Chicago. (POOR) Having professional sports teams in Chicago has political, social and economic advantages. (BETTER)

22. Writing the Body ParagraphsRemember: Say it…Support it…Explain it! • The topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or argued. • Each main idea that you wrote down in your diagram or outline will become one of the body paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas, you will have three or four body paragraphs. • Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion.

24. First Supporting Argument (not limited to one paragraph) • Topic Sentence • Your first supporting argument to prove your thesis is clearly stated. • Proof/Evidence • Support your argument using evidence – relevant and detailed facts, examples, Historian/Sociologist’s views/theories and/or quotations. • Explanation • Explain how/why the evidence proves your argument. Why significant? • Connection • Close the paragraph by wrapping up the argument presented in the topic sentence and connecting it to your thesis. • Transition to next paragraph

25. First Supporting Argument (not limited to one paragraph) • Key Point #1 (Topic Sentence): ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ • Supporting detail 1 _______________________________________________________Transition • Supporting detail 2 _______________________________________________________Transition • Supporting detail 3 _______________________________________________________Transition • Clincher detail: ____________________________________________________________________ • Concluding Sentence with Transition: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

26. Second Supporting Argument(not limited to one paragraph) • Topic Sentence • Your second supporting argumentto prove your thesis is clearly stated. • Proof/Evidence • Support your argument using evidence – relevant and detailed facts, examples, Historian/Sociologist’s views/theories and/or quotations. • Explanation • Explain how/why the evidence proves your argument. Why significant? • Connection • Close the paragraph by wrapping up the topic sentence argument and connecting it to your thesis. • Transition to next paragraph

27. 2nd Supporting Argument (not limited to one paragraph) • Key Point #2 (Topic Sentence): ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ • Supporting detail 1 _______________________________________________________Transition • Supporting detail 2 _______________________________________________________Transition • Supporting detail 3 _______________________________________________________Transition • Clincher detail: ____________________________________________________________________ • Concluding Sentence with Transition: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

28. Third Supporting Argument (not limited to one paragraph) • Topic Sentence • Your third supporting argumentto prove your thesis is clearly stated. **To further strengthen your argument & thesis use this paragraph(s) to acknowledge and refute counter-argument(s) if applicable. • Proof/Evidence • Support your argument using evidence – relevant and detailed facts, examples, Historian/Sociologist’s views/theories and/or quotations. • Explanation • Explain how/why the evidence proves your argument. Why significant? • Connection • Close the paragraph by wrapping up the topic sentence argument and connecting it to your thesis.

29. Third Supporting Argument (not limited to one paragraph) • Key Point #3 (Topic Sentence): ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ • Supporting detail 1 _______________________________________________________Transition • Supporting detail 2 _______________________________________________________Transition • Supporting detail 3 _______________________________________________________Transition • Clincher detail: ____________________________________________________________________ • Concluding Sentence ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ • OR Acknowledge and refute counter-argument(s) if applicable:

30. Conclusion The conclusion brings closure to the reader, summing up your points and providing a final perspective on your topic. Concluding Paragraph(at least 5 sentences) *New information must not be introduced. First Sentence Restate your thesis – use different wording. Subsequent Sentences Clearly summarize your arguments in support of the thesis. Remember, it is your last chance to convince the reader you have proven your thesis! Avoid a thoughtless regurgitation. Leave the reader with something to think about.

31. Citations Use APA in-text citations, which will direct the reader to a list of references at the end of the paper. They identify the author’s name, the year of publication. For direct quotes, also include the page number. Use citations when you: Use quotes (exact words from someone else) Use ideas from someone else Summarize and paraphrase other sources Statistics Visual info. Such as tables, graphs, diagrams & illustrations You do not need to use citations when… It is your original thoughts and ideas Common Knowledge (Ottawa is the capital of Canada) Tip: If in doubt, cite!

32. Examples of Citations Quotations: (Author, date, page #) No date = (Author, page #) No Author = (Abb. Title, date, page #) Web site = Same, but instead of page # use paragraph # (¶ = symbol for paragraph) (Reid, 2005, ¶5) or (Reid, 2005, para. 5) If the author’s name is mentioned in the text… Ms. Reid (2005) states "Africa is in an economic crisis due to European colonization and the aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (p.5). If the author’s name is not mentioned in the text… In a recent publication, one observer noted "Africa is in an economic crisis due to European colonization and the aftermath of the Triangular Trade " (Reid, 2005, p.5).

33. Examples of Citations Summary or Paraphrase Same as above, but you do not need to use page #’s, unless using longer works. Two Authors (Clarkson & McCall, 2005, p.#). Unknown Author Use the title of the work. Example: (Crisis in Africa, 2005, p.#).

34. Examples of Citations • Electronic Sources • A. Same as above, but use paragraph #’s instead of page #’s. Use the symbol ¶ or by the abbreviation "para." Example: (Reid, 2005, ¶5) or (Reid, 2005, para. 5) • B. If neither a page nor a paragraph number is given and the document contains headings, cite the appropriate heading and indicate which paragraph under that heading you are referring to. Example: (Shared Path section, para. 6). • C. If you use a source that was cited in another source (a secondary source), name the original source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include it in your parenthetical citation, preceded by the words "as cited in." In the following example, Booth is the secondary source. Example: Historian Ms. Reid states "Africa is in an economic crisis due to European colonization and the aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (as cited in Rhymes, 2005, p.5).

35. Examples of Citations If you use a source that was cited in another source (a secondary source), name the original source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include it in your parenthetical citation, preceded by the words "as cited in." In the following example, Booth is the secondary source. Example: Historian Ms. Reid states "Africa is in an economic crisis due to European colonization and the aftermath of the Triangular Trade" (as cited in Rhymes, 2005, p.5).

36. Transitional Words and Phrases: • Good transitions can connect ideas and paragraphs • Helps papers read more smoothly, and at the same time allows the reader to flow more smoothly from one point to the next. • Always use a transition phrase at the beginning of a new body paragraph • Always use a transition word in between thoughts within a paragraph • Never use a transition word to begin an essay • Never use a transition word to begin a paragraph (but you can sometimes use a transition phrase at the start of a new body paragraph)

37. Transitional Devices • To Add: and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.) • To Compare: whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true • To Prove: because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is

38. Transitional Devices • To Show Exception: yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes • To Show Time: immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then • To Repeat: in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted • To Emphasize: definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation

39. Transitional Devices • To Show Sequence: first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon • To Give an Example: for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate • To Summarize or Conclude: in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole

40. Punctuation Rules • Coordinating Conjunctions (and, but, or, yet, so):Put a comma before these conjunctions. (Don't use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing.) example: The movie has already started, but my friend has not arrived yet. • Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts: either . . . or): • Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences). example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher, but he is also a gourmet cook. • You don't need a comma if it only connects words or phrases. example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook. • Transitional Words and Phrases: • Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence. example: I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals. • Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences. example: I like to travel; specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals. • Use a comma before and after the transitional word/phrase in the middle of a clause. example: I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

41. Reference Page • At the end of the report (on a separate piece of paper), center the title References at the top of the page. Do not italicize, underline or use quotation marks around the title. • Number the page of your reference list the same as the rest of your paper. (Shorten title and 5 spaces and then page #) • Arrange all sources you used in a single alphabetical list by author’s last name or by title if no author is given. • Double-space all entries in your reference list. • DO not indent the first line, but always indent the second or third lines (5 spaces). This is called Hanging Indentation. • Always leave 1 space after commas and 2 spaces after periods and colons. • Do not # them.

42. Reference Samples • Book Author. (Date). Title. Place of Publication: Publisher. • Editor Name of Editor. (Ed.). (Date). Title. Place of Publication: Publisher. • ElectronicEncyclopedia Title of Article. (Date). Name of Encyclopedia. Publisher. • Encyclopedia Author (if given). (Date). Title of Article. Name of Encyclopedia. Volume #, Pages. • Magazine/Newspaper Author (if given). (Date, Month). Title of Article. Name of Magazine/Newspaper, Pages.

43. Reference Samples • Internet Resources Author. (Date). Title of Article. Retrieved September 20th, 2005 from URL • Example: Nielsen, M. E. (2000). Notable People in Psychology of Religion. Retrieved August 3, 2001, from http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm • No Date Nielsen, M. E. (n.d.). Notable People in Psychology of Religion. Retrieved August 3, 2001, from  http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm • No Author, No Date Gender and society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2001, from http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/gender.html

44. Title 5 References • DiLorenzo, Thomas. (2002). The Economics of Slavery. • Retrieved September 17th, 2007, from http://www.lewr • ckwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo29.html • Dodson, Howard. (2003). How Slavery Helped Build a World Economy. • Retrieved on September 17th, 2007, from • http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/ • 2003/01/0131_030203_jubilee2.html • Field, Ron. (1995). African Peoples of the Americas. Great Britain: Cambridge • University Press.. • Slavery. (n.d.) Retrieved on September 17th, 2007, from • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/slavery • The Economics of Slavery. (n.d.) Retrieved on September • 17th, 2007, fromwww.digitalhisotry.uh.edu/database/ • article_display.cfm?HHID=80

45. Editing • Check spelling and grammar. • Read your essay out loud to yourself and then to someone else!!!!! • Make sure you do not have run-on sentences and that you have organized paragraphs!!! • Make sure that your essay flows and is interesting!!!

46. Congratulations! • Once you have checked your work and perfected your formatting, your essay is finished.