教學媒體與教育應用 發展歷史回顧

1. 教學媒體與教育應用發展歷史回顧 Feb, 2006

2. The Field of InstructionalDesign and Technology • Analysis of learning and performance problem, • Design, • Development, • Implementation, • Evaluation, and • Management of instructional or non-instructional resources • In educational institutes or workplaces

3. 媒體的概念與分類 • Medium（單）, media（複）：中介（Between） • Media → Multimedia → Interactive multimedia • 分類： • 感官: 視、聽、觸、、、 • 特性：平面、立體、情境化、、 • 技術：化學、電子（類比、數位）、、 • 使用：放映、互動、模擬、、、

4. 歷史最悠久的「教學媒體」 • Teacher • Chalkboard • Textbook • 以上通常不被歸類為教學媒體 • Instructional (educational) media often refer to other physical means

5. Media Historical Timeline • 1840 Photography • 1920 Radio Broadcast • 1936 Black-White TV • 1936 Color Film • 1953 Color TV • 1958 VCR • 1989 Macintosh II with digital sound • 1989 PC with Sound Blaster • … Internet 1,500MB/sec … • …

6. From Early 1900s… • School museums • Visual and Audiovisual instructions • Media use during World War II • Instructional television • Computer • Internet

7. School Museum • First in St. Louis, 1905 • Exhibits, Stereographs (3-D photos) • Slides, films, etc. • Not intended to supplant teacher or textbook • Supplementary curriculum materials

8. Visuals and Audiovisuals • Motion picture projectors • First instructional film in 1910 • With advance in radio, sound-recording, sound motion picture, visual became audiovisual (1920s-1930s) • Great commercial interests, but lost $50 million due to Great Depression • Audiovisual continued to evolve • Dale (1946): Cone of experience

9. During World War II • Audiovisual movement slowed down • But extensively used in military • 1943-1945: 400 training films, 600 film strips produced for Army Air Force • Little time to collect hard data for evaluation, but survey showed effective • Amazed enemy (Germany)

10. Post World War II • Intensive research undertaken to identify principles of learning to facilitate design • Findings largely ignored • Media comparison studies usually showed students learned equally regardless of means of presentations • Scholars argued studies should focus on media attributes, examination effects, or instructional methods

11. Instructional Television • Tremendous growth in 1950s • Two factors: • 141 Channels set aside by FCC for public service • $170 million sponsored by Ford Foundation • Interests abated in 1960, perhaps due to mediocre instructional quality • Instructional television was not widely adopted by schools. Why? • Teachers’ resistance • Expense and maintenance • Not adequate for various conditions for learning

12. Computers: 1950-1995 • Early CAI done in IBM in 1950s • 1960s-1970s PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic-Teaching Operations) in Illinois • By 1970, little impact found on education • In 1980s, wide spread interest for instructional use • Less expensive • More functions • By 1983, computers used for instruction in more than 40% elementary, 75% secondary schools • By mid-1990s, still small impact, few innovations

13. Recent Development • Rapid advance in computer & Internet • A survey of 750 companies (1999): Training via technology from less than 6% in 1996 to more than 22% by 2000 • Between 94-95 and 97-98 academic years, enrollment of distance learning doubled • Recent interest toward performance support

14. 歷史上的今天:教育科技 • 數位學習國家型科技計畫(eLearning), Taiwan • 2002起, 5年內投入40億台幣 • FY1999, 擴大內需, 64億台幣 • Visions 2020, USA • Visioning exercise facilitated by Department of Commerce • 14 Papers included • Survey of International Investment in ET R&D • Published 2002, Funded by the Spencer Foundation • Around the world: FY1999, US$ 16 billion in educational technology

15. 1945 & 1997in The Atlantic Monthly • As We May Think, 1945 • By Dr. Vannevar Bush (Father of multimedia) • Scientific research for war? • Inventions have extended man's physical powers rather than the powers of his mind. • Computer Delusion, 1997 • By Todd Oppenheimer • Questioning investment in computers in schools

16. Father of MultimediaDr. Vannevar Bush As We May Think, The Atlantic Monthly, 1945 “Consider a future device for individual use, which is a sort of mechanized private file and library. It needs a name, and to coin one at random, ``memex'' will do. A memex is a device in which an individual stores all his books, records, and communications, and which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory. It consists of a desk, and while it can presumably be operated from a distance, it is primarily the piece of furniture at which he works. On the top are slanting translucent screens, on which material can be projected for convenient reading. There is a keyboard, and sets of buttons and levers. Otherwise it looks like an ordinary desk.”

17. Computer DelusionTodd Opennheimer The Atlantic Monthly, 1997 “There is no good evidence that most uses of computers significantly improve teaching and learning, yet school districts are cutting programs --- music, art, physical education --- that enrich children’s lives to make room for this dubious nostrum…”

18. Canon 電子紙 What were the visions? • 先來想像一下、、、 • Classroom as theater (Slides,16mm) • Teaching machine (TV) • Interactive and Fun (Multimedia) • Individualized with no boundary (Hypermedia) • … 02:10

19. Classroom as Theatre Thomas Edison, 1922 “… the motion picture is destined to revolutionize our education system and … in a few years it will supplant largely, if not entirely, the use of textbooks.”

20. Teaching Machine Sydney Pressey, 1926 “… teaching machines are unique among instructional aids, in that the student not merely passively listen, watches, or reads but actively responds. And as he does so he finds out whether his response is correct or not. And a record may be kept which aids in improving the materials.”

21. Television as Teaching Machine Edward R. Murrow, 1958 “This instrument can teach, it can illuminate; yes, it can even inspire. But it can do so only to the extent that humans are determined to use it to those ends. Otherwise, it is merely lights and wires in a box..” When two vowels go walking. 01:30

22. Teaching Machine B. F. Skinner, 1961 “A frame of textual material appearing in the square opening is incomplete: in place of certain letters or figures there are holes. Letters or figures can be made to appear in these holes by moving slides... When the material has been completed, the student checks his response… if they are correct, moves a new frame of material into place…“ “… with the help of teaching machines and programmed instruction, students could learn twice as much in the same time and with same effort as in a standard classroom.“

23. 高互動教室 中央大學, 2000 「按按按」的硬體設計採用師生慣用的紅外線遙控裝置，經由與後端教材題庫的結合，教師可輕易運用於教學活動中，所有學生學習歷程的資料都會在學生每按一次遙控器按鍵後，傳回後端的學習資料庫中，配合恰當的資料統計與分析過程，老師及家長可精確了解到學生的學習情況。 01:05

24. Richard E. Clark Media Will Never Influence Learning, 1983; 1994 “The best current evidence is that mediaare mere vehicles thatdeliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition.” “… the choice of vehicle might influence the cost or extent of distributing instruction.” “… it was not the medium which influenced learning but instead certain attributes of media that can be modeled by learners and can shape the development of unique ‘cognitive process’.”

25. 台灣的發展 • 1976 淡江大學 大一英文CAI • 1986 台北西松國中 英文CAI實驗教學 • 1990 TANET • 1998 擴大內需方案 • 2000 亞卓市EduCities • 2002 eLearning • …

26. 非關教育,很久以前的願景… Scientific American, 1889 “… the improvement in city condition by general adoption of the motor car can hardly overestimated. Street clean, dustless, and odorless, with light rubber-tired vehicles moving swiftly and noiselessly over smooth expanse, would eliminate a great part of the nervousness, distraction, and strain of modern metropolitan life.”

27. Behaviorism vs. Constructivism • Learning from “teacher” • Learning from “technology” (or media) • Learning with “facilitators” (or “peers”) • Learning with “technology” (or tools)

28. Thomas C. Reeves, 1998Learning “from” media and technology • Television • No conclusive evidence, TV stultifies mind • TV viewing not displaces academic activities • Positive effectiveness Instructional TV, especially while production aided by real teachers • No difference between live teacher and video presentation

29. Thomas C. Reeves, 1998Learning “from” media and technology • Computer-based Instruction • Positive effectiveness in general as tutor: Motivation and Standardized achievement test • Less time to complete a given lesson • No significant impact of intelligent tutoring due to technical difficulties

30. Thomas C. Reeves, 1998Learning “with” media and technology • Great effectiveness within constructivist learning environment • Representing knowledge support deep reflective thinking • Mindfulness and engagement • Learning to learn, and wishing to innovate

31. Emperor’s New Clothes? Jamie McKenzie, 1995 • Too often, lower order task and basic skills examined • Too little work on measuring gains in higher order skills • Biased research; flawed methodology • Little evidence that growth in skills persists beyond initial “gadget stage”

32. Feedback & Questions