Part 2 – Methods for Qualitative Research

1. Part 2 – Methods for Qualitative Research Dr Janice Whatley September 2014

2. Agenda • Strategies for qualitative studies • Action Research • Case Study Research • Ethnography • Grounded Theory • Methods for data collection • Questionnaires • Interviews • Focus Groups • Observation • Document analysis Dr J Whatley September 2014

3. Method or Methodology • A research method is a strategy of inquiry which moves from the underlying philosophical assumptions to research design and data collection • The research method is a strategy of inquiry leading to choices of research design and data collection • A procedure, technique, or way of doing something, especially in  accordance with a definite plan: e.g. there are three possible methods of repairing this motor. • A manner of procedure, especially an orderly, logical, or systematic way of instruction, inquiry, investigation, experiment, presentation etc. • Order or system in doing anything • Orderly or systematic arrangement, sequence, or the like • Methodology: • A set or system of methods, principles and rules for regulating a given discipline, as in the arts or sciences • Philosophy:the underlying principles and rules of organisation of a  philosophical system or inquiry procedure Dr J Whatley September 2014

4. Research Onion (Saunders, 2003) Dr J Whatley September 2014

5. Action Research • “Action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals of social science by joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework” (Rapoport, 1970, p. 499). • Action research is concerned to enlarge the stock of knowledge of the social science community • A particularly suitable approach for research by practitioners, where close interaction with subjects is possible • Provides opportunities to acquire insights into social worlds, and to help in formulating effective solutions to problems in their lives. • It can be a model for and a process for research • A cycle of Plan, Act, Observe, Reflect Dr J Whatley September 2014

6. One model of action research: • Problem identification; • Consultation with a behavioural science expert; • Data gathering and preliminary diagnosis; • Feedback to client; • Joint diagnosis of a problem; Joint action planning; • Action; • Data gathering after action. • As a process it is based on a cycle of systematically getting data, analysing it, feeding the results back in and evaluating • The main characteristics of action research are: • Collaboration through participation with subjects; • Building up knowledge; • Helping social change in the situation being studied; • Contributing to empowerment of subjects. Dr J Whatley September 2014

7. Case Study Research • A case study is an empirical inquiry that: • investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Yin 2002). • Particularly well-suited to IS research • A case study method involves studying a phenomenon in a real-life situation, often used when research and theory are at an early stage of investigation, and informative descriptions of the phenomenon are required • Useful for questions of “how?” and “why?” • The focus is on events at a particular point in time, to identify patterns or features Dr J Whatley September 2014

8. Case study is used to contribute to knowledge of individual, group, organisational and other phenomena, and can take a number of forms: theory seeking, theory testing, story telling, picture drawing or evaluation • Case studies involve multiple sources of data, so results are often found from triangulation of data. • In carrying out case study research a general strategy for analysis is suggested at the outset: • Following a theoretical proposition that led to the case study, to answer how and why questions and lead to alternative explanation to be discussed; • Thinking about rival explanations, resulting from other influences, and discussing these; • Developing a case description, which might highlight relevant causal links to discuss (Yin 1994:21). Dr J Whatley September 2014

9. Multiple cases are used to establish whether the findings of one case are relevant to other cases • Single case research is used where this particular case has some unique quality about it, which is of interest to the wider community as well as the researcher • A case study is holistic if it is looking at the organisation as a whole, but is embedded if it is concerned with a particular sub section of the organisation • In case study there is a need to take care when making inferences, as there may not be sufficient data to state facts, so cause and effect cannot be stated Dr J Whatley September 2014

10. Ethnography • Ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives of the people they study (Lewis 1985, p. 380) and seek to place the phenomena studied in their social and cultural context • A method whereby multiple perspectives can be incorporated in systems design • Based on anthropological fieldwork, where the researcher becomes closely involved with the subjects being studied over a long period of time. , and • Data obtained may be very rich for that particular setting, and analysis may enable some generalisability Dr J Whatley September 2014

11. Grounded Theory • Grounded theory is a research method that seeks to develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analysed • According to Martin and Turner (1986), grounded theory is "an inductive, theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or data.“ • Grounded theory suggests that there should be a continuous interplay between data collection and analysis. • Grounded theory involves systematically verifying a theory as data is collected, rather than starting with a theory to be tested Dr J Whatley September 2014

12. Methods for data collection • Survey • Questionnaires • Interviews • Focus group • Observation • Any of these can have a quantitative and qualitative component • Data collection, to provide facts and rich meanings for the situation under investigation, such as peoples’ knowledge, attitudes and opinions on a topic Dr J Whatley September 2014

13. Questionnaires • Require a clear outline of the objectives of the survey, designing the instrument, administering it, then managing and analysis of the data, to provide results that are reliable and valid • Closed questions for discrete data: Yes/No, or choices from a list • Open questions enable the respondent to state views in their own words, whether they write the responses themselves or the interviewer writes the responses down. • Likert scales for a range from positive to negative responses, such as agree/disagree Dr J Whatley September 2014

14. Questionnaires • When using the data for qualitative purposes rather than quantitative purposes, it is more important that the sample of respondents chosen are able to provide a wide variety of reflective feedback, covering the relevant issues, than truly represent the population as a whole Dr J Whatley September 2014

15. Interviews • Open questions, where respondents are given the opportunity to respond in any way that they choose, • Closed questions are used to obtain factual data from respondents, for example to ascertain the typical ages of respondents • When asked with an open mind and encouraging the respondent, they can give very detailed opinions • Help to understand the experience of respondents and the meaning they make of it (Seidman 1998) • Semi-structured interviews allow the respondents to elaborate on ideas and provide more detail in response to open questions Dr J Whatley September 2014

16. Potential drawbacks • Take care not to influence the respondent and introduce bias, or to allow their professional role, their age, gender or culture to affect respondents’ willingness to provide open answers Dr J Whatley September 2014

17. Focus Groups • Obtaining opinions from a number of people in a cost effective manner (Morgan and Kreuger 1993). • Enabling organised discussion, as a collective activity, where the resulting opinions are based on interaction within the group, so that triggers from individuals may spark comments by others (Kitzinger 1994; Powell et al. 1996) • A group of individuals are selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the subject of the research, also known as a discussion group Dr J Whatley September 2014

18. Instead of using set questions, there is an open style of eliciting statements, through prompting from the facilitator and the respondents themselves. • The idea is to draw upon the respondents’ attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences and reactions to the topic, and elicit a multiplicity of views and emotions • Particularly useful when there are power differences between the participants and decision makers or other professionals, or when one wants to explore the degree of consensus on a given topic • The ability for individuals to react to others provides for richer feedback than could be achieved through an individual interview Dr J Whatley September 2014

19. Observation • Overt or covert observation • What are the ethical issues? • Participant observation • What are the ethical issues? • Note taking or diary • Recording • Structured observation • Types of data generated: • Primary observations • Secondary observations • Experimental data • Contextual data Dr J Whatley September 2014

20. Document analysis • Often used alongside primary data collection • Types of data: • Notices • Correspondence • Minutes of meetings • Reports • Administrative records • News reports • Data collected for other purposes • Be sure the data does help to answer the research question • Access to the data, and cost of retrieving it Dr J Whatley September 2014

21. Triangulation • The interpretation of a research project may be positioned by reference to three (or more) sources of data • Collecting data using different methods will give a variety of types of data covering a wider range, which may increase the robustness of the research. • The different forms of data will also provide a richer, contextual basis for interpretation, giving cross validation • Confirm findings from a different perspective • Using several methods to view interpretive findings will provide more evidence for findings (Fielding and Schreier 2001) Dr J Whatley September 2014

22. Mixed Methods • Looking for a deeper understanding of the social situation being studied than can be seen with statistical measures • Some say qualitative data is good for exploratory research at the beginning of a study, but it is being used more for greater understanding of something already measured quantitatively • 2 examples: • Questionnaire to give an idea of the scale of an issue, followed by in depth interviews and focus groups to identify underlying causes • Interviews to determine what the pertinent issues are, followed by questionnaires to measure them Dr J Whatley September 2014

23. Activity • Decide which research strategy and methods would be appropriate for an example of research Dr J Whatley September 2014

24. Summary • There are 4 strategies associated with Interpretive Research • Methods used for these are usually qualitative • Triangulation gives a wider perspective on the topic • Using quantitative methods as well can also provide deeper understanding Dr J Whatley September 2014