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CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 3. PERCEPTION, ATTRIBUTION, AND JUDGMENT OF OTHERS. LEARNING OBJECTIVES. Define perception and discuss some of the general factors that influence perception. Explain some basic biases in person perception. Describe how people form attributions about the causes of behaviour.

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CHAPTER 3

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  1. CHAPTER 3 PERCEPTION, ATTRIBUTION, AND JUDGMENT OF OTHERS COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Define perception and discuss some of the general factors that influence perception. • Explain some basic biases in person perception. • Describe how people form attributions about the causes of behaviour. • Discuss various biases in attribution. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  3. Appreciate the concepts of work force diversity and valuing diversity. • Discuss how racial, ethnic, gender and age stereotypes affect organizational behaviour. • Define trust perceptions and discuss how organizations can foster employee perceptions of trust. • Discuss how perception affects the outcomes of selection interviews and performance appraisals. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  4. WHAT IS PERCEPTION? The process of interpreting the messages of our senses to provide order and meaning to the environment. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  5. COMPONENTS OF PERCEPTION PERCEIVER • The experience, needs and emotions affect the perceptions of a target. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  6. TARGET • Interpretation and the addition of meaning. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  7. SITUATION • Every instance of perception occurs in some situational context. • This context affects perception. • The situation adds information about the target. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  8. BRUNER’S MODEL OF THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS • When a perceiver encounters an unfamiliar target, the perceiver is very open to the informational cues contained in the target and the situation surrounding it. • Information is needed on which to base perceptions of the target and to resolve any ambiguity. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  9. BRUNER’S MODEL: AN EXAMPLE COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  10. BRUNER’S MODEL OF THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS SELECTIVITY • Not all available cues are used and those that are used are thus given emphasis. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  11. CONSTANCY • The tendency for the target to be perceived in the same way over time or across situations. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  12. CONSISTENCY • The tendency to select, ignore and distort cues to fit together to form a homogeneous image of the target. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  13. SOME BASIC BIASES IN PERSON PERCEPTION PRIMACY EFFECT • The tendency for a perceiver to rely on early cues or first impressions. RECENCY EFFECT • The tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  14. CENTRAL TRAITS • Personal characteristics of a target person that are of particular interest to a perceiver. IMPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORIES • Personal theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  15. PROJECTION • The tendency for perceivers to attribute their own thoughts and feelings to others. STEREOTYPING • The tendency to generalize about people in a social category and ignore variations among them. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  16. ATTRIBUTION BEHAVIOUR The process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain people’s behaviour. • DISPOSITIONAL ATTRIBUTIONS • Explanations for behaviour based on an actor’s personality or intellect. • SITUATIONAL ATTRIBUTIONS • Explanations for behaviour based on an actor’s external situation or environment. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  17. CUES CONSISTENCY CUES • Attribution cues that reflect how consistently a person engages in some behaviour over time. CONSENSUS CUES • Attribution cues that reflect how a person’s behaviour compares with that of others. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  18. DISTINCTIVENESS CUES • Attribution cues that reflect the extent to which a person engages in some behaviour across a variety of situations. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  19. CUE COMBINATIONS AND RESULTING ATTRIBUTIONS Consistency Consensus Distinctiveness Likely Attribution Smith High Low Low Disposition Jones High High High Situation Kelley Low High Low Temporary Situation COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  20. FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR The tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations for behaviour at the expense of situational explanations. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  21. ACTOR-OBSERVER EFFECT The propensity for actors and observers to view the causes of the actor’s behaviour differently. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  22. SELF-SERVING BIAS The tendency to take credit for successful outcomes and to deny responsibility for failures. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  23. WORKFORCE DIVERSITY Differences among recruits and employees in characteristics, such as gender, race, age, religion, cultural background, physical ability and sexual orientation. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  24. STEREOTYPES AND WORKFORCE DIVERSITY • Racial and Ethnic Stereotypes • Gender Stereotypes • Age Stereotypes COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  25. MANAGING DIVERSITY WITH STEREOTYPE REDUCTION • Select enough minority members to get them beyond token status. • Encourage teamwork that brings minority and majority members together. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  26. Ensure that those making career decisions about employees have accurate information about them rather than hearsay and second-hand opinion. • Train people to be aware of stereotypes. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  27. COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES OF A DIVERSE WORKFORCE 1. Cost Argument: As organizations become more diverse, the cost of a poor job in integrating workers will increase. Those who handle this well will thus create cost advantages over those who don’t. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  28. 2. Resource Acquisition Argument: Companies develop reputations on favourability as prospective employers for women and ethnic minorities. Those with the best reputations for managing diversity will win the competition for the best personnel. As the labour pool shrinks and changes composition, this edge will become increasingly important. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  29. 3. Marketing Argument: For multinational organizations, the insight and cultural sensitivity that members with roots in other countries bring to the marketing effort should improve these efforts in important ways. The same rationale applies to marketing to subpopulations within domestic operations. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  30. 4. Creativity Argument: Diversity of perspectives and less emphasis on conformity to norms of the past (which characterize the modern approach to management of diversity) should improve the level of creativity. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  31. 5. Problem-Solving Argument: Heterogeneity in decision and problem solving groups potentially produces better decisions through a wider range of perspectives and more thorough critical analysis of issues. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  32. 6. System Flexibility Argument: An implication of the multicultural model for managing diversity is that the system will become less determinant, less standardized, and therefore more fluid. The increased fluidity should create greater flexibility to react to environmental changes (i.e., reactions should be faster and at less cost). Source: Cox, T.H., & Blake, S. (1991, August). Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness. Academy of Management Executive, 47, pp. 45-56. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  33. TRUST PERCEPTIONS TOWARD MANAGEMENT • Ability – employees’ perception of management’s competence and skills. • Benevolence – employees perceive management as caring and concerned for their interest and willing to do good for them. • Integrity – employees’ perception that management adheres to and behaves according to a set of values and principles. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  34. PERCEPTUAL PROBLEMS IN THE SELECTION PROCESS IN INTERVIEWS • Interviewers compare applicants with a stereotype of the ideal applicant. • Interviewers have a tendency to exhibit primacy reactions. • Early information about the applicant has an undue impact on the final decision. • It can also have an exaggerated influence on the interview outcome. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  35. Interviewers have a tendency to underweight positive information about the applicant. • Contrast effects occur when previously interviewed job applicants affect an interviewer’s perception of a current applicant, leading to an exaggeration of differences between applicants. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  36. PERCEPTION AND PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL • Objective and Subjective Measures • Higher in the organizational hierarchy, it becomes more difficult to find objective measures or quantifiable evidence to use to measure performance. • Therefore, organizations rely on subjective measures of effectiveness provided by managers. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  37. Subjective performance appraisal is subject to perceptual biases of: • Primacy • Recency • Stereotypes • Rater errors COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  38. RATER ERRORS • Leniency – The tendency to perceive the job performance of ratees as especially good. • Harshness – The tendency to perceive the job performance of ratees as especially ineffective. • Central tendency – The tendency to assign most ratees to middle-range job performance categories. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  39. LENIENCY, HARSHNESS, AND CENTRAL TENDENCY COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

  40. Halo effect – The rating of an individual on one trait or characteristic tends to colour ratings on other traits or characteristics. • Similar-to-me effect – A rater gives more favourable evaluations to people who are similar to the rater in terms of background or attitudes. COPYRIGHT 2001 PEARSON EDUCATION CANADA INC. CHAPTER 3

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