SOC4044 Sociological Theory: Introduction to Theory Development and Introduction to Sociological Paradigms

ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet • Define common sense. • Give two examples • Define scientific inquiry. • Define paradigm. • Give an example. • Define assumption (as it relates to paradigm). • Define theory. © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense Common Sense • The definition of common sense is: • 1: the unreflective opinions of ordinary men 2: sound and prudent but often unsophisticated judgement (Mish 1991:266) • Common sense is a valuable tool for our everyday lives -- we would not want to totally demean its value © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense Scientific Inquiry • The definition for scientific inquiry is: • A deliberate, focused, systematic, and logical means of explaining an observable event in one’s world (Bolender 1993:11) © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense • The scientific method provides a more thorough, thoughtful explanation of events than most common sense answers could give. The scientific method may conclude that it has not found a good answer to the purpose of the event, however that is generally still a more thorough answer than most common sense answers provide (Bolender 1993:11-12). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense Most people are constantly in the process of making informal observations about their world. Attempts are made to describe, explain, predict, and control daily events (Bunker, Pearlson, and Schulz 1975). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense Perception Screening Devices • Common Sense • The layperson uses common sense to deal with everyday observations (Selltiz, Wrightsman, and Cook 1976). Laypeople use subjective ideas (opinions) to determine if an observation is reliable (Bunker, Pearlson, and Schulz 1975). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Scientific Inquiry versus Common Sense • Scientific Inquiry • Evidence (objective facts) is used in scientific inquiry to indicate if an idea is supportable (Bunker, Pearlson, and Schulz 1975). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm Paradigm • The definition of a paradigm is: • Paradigms. . . are taken-for-granted ideas and assumptions not debated by members of a scientific discipline (Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm When paradigms change, the world itself changes with them. Led by a new paradigm, scientists adapt new instruments and look in new places. Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1970:110?) © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm Does one’s paradigm make any difference in the real world? You bet it does! “Why Doctors Are Not Curing Ulcers” Brian O’Reilly (1997:100-112) © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm Assumption • The definition of assumption is: • . . . a preconception or “given.” . . . it refers to something that is taken for granted (Perdue 1986:5-6). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm • For example: Plato’s Six Basic Assumptions of Society (he was a sociologist before the discipline officially existed) • Man is an organism. • Organisms tend toward survival. • Man survives in groups. • Man is a social animal. • Man lives in an ordered society. • The order of society is knowable. (Rose 1967 and Carroll 1972 in Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:4-5) © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm Theory • A definition of theory is: • . . . A theory is a logical deductive-inductive system of concepts, definitions, and propositions which states a relationship between two or more selected aspects of phenomena and from which testable hypotheses can be derived (Ward 1974:39). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm • Theories in sociology are intended to be descriptive, explanatory, and predictive of phenomena of interest to the discipline and to its individual practitioners (Ward 1974:39). • A theory is a set of concepts plus the interrelationships that are assumed to exist among those concepts. A theory also includes consequences that we assume logically to follow from the relationships proposed in the theory. These consequences are called hypotheses (Selltiz, Wrightsman, and Cook 1976). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm Proposition • A definition of proposition: • . . . are “statements about the nature of reality” which describe connections between phenomena or events. “Man is an organism and must eat to survive” is a propositional statement which can easily be put to the test. At a higher level sociologists may say, “Changes in the economic structure will result in changes in the nonmaterial aspects of society.” This statement can also be put to the test (Phillips 1971:52 in Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:23). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm Concept • Theories also contain concepts, which are created by giving names to events, phenomena, and processes. Concepts are merely the symbols scientists use as a form of shorthand (Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:23). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm • “Each concept communicates to the specialist a vast amount of experience, abstracted and clarified for those who understand the term (Goode and Hatt 1952:44 in Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:23). • Example: Status is a concept which refers to an individual’s location in society-high, low, or middle range (Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:23). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm • Real Definition • Is anchored in concrete or observable phenomena and has empirical or testable implications • The President of the United States (Bierstedt in Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974:23-24) © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm • Operational Definition • Measurement theory concerns the linkage between concepts and indicators in a study. Operational definitions are always based on measurement theories that assign empirical meaning to concepts. . . The operational definition stipulates which specific indicators (or observations) are to be assigned which specific meanings (Selltiz, Wrightsman, and Cook 1976:40). • Example: IQ is an operational definition of intelligence © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm Hypothesis • The definition of hypothesis is: • is a statement outlining the relationship between two or more factors of events, such as X causes Y. A hypothesis is reasoned or deducted from a theory and seeks to make a general statement specific (Denisoff, Callahan, and Levine 1974: 24). © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm Emile Durkheim’s Study of Suicide • Theory: Society is a closed system with each member interrelated to all the other members within the society. There is a phenomenon of social integration. • Proposition: Society is an organism with interrelated parts, therefore, the stronger the social cohesion, the stronger the society. © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm • Concepts: • Social cohesion • Solidarity • Operational Definition: Suicide is an objective measurement of social cohesion • Hypothesis: The annual suicide rate for Catholics will be lower than Protestants • The hypothesis is a deduction of the theory © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet • Go to page 7 of the worksheet • The theme: The earth is flat (or hump-back) • Make an attempt to complete each component as if you accepted this paradigm © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet • Go to page 8 of the worksheet • Paradigm • The earth is flat (or at least hump-back). • Assumptions • The world ends at the “four corners” of the earth. • The “known” surface land mass has been explored. © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet • The edges of all the “known” surface land mass is bordered by water. • Theories • The is flat (or at least hump-back). • The earth has “edges.” • Propositions • Man cannot travel beyond the edge of the earth without falling off. © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet • All of the surface land mass has been explored or at least mapped. • Concepts • Four corners of the earth • Edge of the world • Definitions • Real Definition • Boundaries of the earth © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

ICA: Theory and Paradigm Worksheet • Operational definition • The earth has only X number of nautical miles between the western coast of Europe and the western boundary of the earth. • Hypothesis • If a ship sails indefinitely in one direction (west, east, south, or north), it will fall off the edge of the earth. © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

Theory and Paradigm The development of sociological theories has been slow. Attempting to develop scientific theories about society is very complex. The variables are endless. Does that make it any less of a worthy goal? The answer is no. It just makes the task that much more challenging. © 1998-2002 by Ronald Keith Bolender

SOC4044 Sociological Theory: Introduction to Theory Development and Introduction to Sociological Paradigms