Enlightenment in the 18th Century: Legacy and Impact

1. Chapter 17 The 18th Century: An Age of Enlightenment

3. Paths to Enlightenment • Principia was not an easy book to read or understand • scientific ideas were spread not by scientists as by intellectuals • Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757) was able to communicate scientific knowledge in a clear, witty manner that appealed to aristocrats • relayed information in the form of a story • science was no longer the monopoly of experts, but a part of literature • Skepticism continued to grow in the scientific community over religion • Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) – was leading critic of traditional religious attitudes • Compelling people to believe a particular set of religious ideas was wrong • Individual conscience should direct one’s actions

4. skepticism about Christianity & European culture reinforced by travel reports • for some intellectuals, natives on distant islands represented “natural man” far happier than most Europeans • cultural relativism – no culture is superior to another because culture is a matter of custom, not reason Legacy of Locke & Newton • Newton was praised as the “greatest and rarest genius that ever rose for the ornament and instruction of the species” • philosophes believed that following Newton’s rules of reasoning would unlock the laws of the natural world • John Locke dismissed Descartes’s belief in innate ideas • 1690: Locke argued that everyone was born w/ a tabula rasa (blank mind) • Knowledge comes from environment not heredity (nature v. nurture) • Changing environment & influences: can it change people?

5. The Philosophes and Their Ideas • from French word for philosopher, many philosophes were not French and few were actually philosophers • came from all walks of life and socioeconomic backgrounds, above all they were social reformers • The philosophe was one who “applies himself to the study of society with the purpose of making his kind better and happier” • Philosophes were bound together by common intellectual bonds, even if they often disagreed w/ each other Montesquieu(1689-1755) • French noble, classical education & studied law • 1721 – Persian Letters used to criticize French society (especially Catholic Church & French monarchy) • 1748 – The Spirit of the Law comparative study of governments • three basic forms of government: republic, monarchy, despotism • separation of power: branches of govt. separate w/ special powers to limit and control each other

6. Voltaire (1694-1778) • French, classical education, studied law, first achieved success as a playwright • 1733 – Philosophic Letters on the English • traveled through England, expressed admiration for English life • especially freedom of press, political freedom, & religious toleration • managed to criticize France by promoting the virtues of England • After returning to France, was forced to live on the outer edges of the nation w/ mistresses • touched on all themes of importance to philosophes, but best known for his criticism of traditional religion & support of religious toleration • also championed deism • God created the universe, set it in motion then had no direct involvement w/ it

7. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) • freelance writer, condemned Christianity • called it “ most absurd and most atrocious in its dogma” • most famous contribution to Enlightenment – Encyclopedia • attacked religious superstition, promoted religious toleration • advocated social, legal, & political improvements to “improve” society • banned in France, Diderot & contributors spent time in jail • later editions sold at reduced price, making it available to many more people, spreading ideas of the Enlightenment further • David Hume – pioneer of social sciences • Treaties on Human Nature 1739-40 • attempted to gain knowledge of human nature through observation • Adam Smith – viewed as a founder of modern economics • Wealth of Nations 1776 • promoted a laissez-faire economy & free trade

8. The Later Enlightenment • Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789) • German aristocrat, settled in Paris • Strict doctrine of atheism & materialism • System of Nature (1770) • Universe consisted of matter in motion • Human beings were just machines • God was a product of the human mind, unnecessary for leading a moral life • Men don’t need to fear punishment in the afterlife for vice & crimes; fear punishment in this life • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) • Born in Geneva, middle class, introverted & solitary • Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind • Humans were happier in their primitive condition before society arose without laws & regulations • government was evil, but a necessary evil

9. Social Contract (1762) • tried to harmonize individual liberty & govt. authority • contract between people & govt. where the entire society would be controlled by the general will of society • Rousseau stated in Emile that education should foster rather than restrict children’s natural instincts • Felt women must lead a sedentary life to care for children and to be kind and tender for the family • The “Woman’s Question” • male intellectuals saw women as naturally inferior, male domination necessary • Diderot & Voltaire both proposed that men & women aren’t all that different • Mary Wollstonecraft seen as founder of European feminism • pointed out contradictions in male thinkers’ ideas about male domination being proper, but opposing slavery

10. Innovations in Art, Music, & Literature • 1730s – new style of art known as Rococo • emphasized grace & gentle action • rejected strict geometric patterns in favor of curves • highly secular, style spoke of pleasure, happiness & love • 17th & 18th centuries were formative years of “classical” music • rise of opera, oratorio, sonata, concerto, & the symphony • Italians developed many of these genres but closely followed by rest of Germans, Austrians, & English • Musicians depended on wealthy patrons • Baroque techniques were mostly perfected by J.S. Bach & George Frederick Handel • Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) • child prodigy, never could find a permanent patron • composed all types of music, found fame writing operatic plays • wrote prolifically but died penniless at 35

11. English credited with the development of the modern novel as the chief vehicle for fictional writing • proved especially attractive to women readers & younger female writers, because it was open to experimentation • Could be about moral seriousness (Pamela) or action & adventure (The History of Tom Jones) • Philosophes also created a revolution in the writing of history • Broadened the scope from humanists’ preoccupation w/ politics • Paid attention to social, economic, & cultural developments • Drawback of philosophe history was their preoccupation w/ certain ideas or philosophies • Emphasis on science & reason and dislike of Christianity made many writers less than sympathetic to the Middle Ages • Edward Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire • cites Christianity as the reason for the fall of Rome

12. Crime & Punishment • By 18th cent., most European states had a hierarchy of courts to deal w/ crimes • judicial torture remained an important means of obtaining evidence before trial (except England) • courts used the rack, thumbscrews, etc. to obtain confessions • punishments often cruel & spectacular • public executions part of traditional punishment to deter crime • death penalty usually handed out for property crimes & criminal offenses • nobility usually beheaded • lower-class criminals tortured, broken on the wheel, drawn & quarter, etc. • 1800s – England had 200 crimes punishable by death

13. Religion and the Churches • 18th cent., Protestant churches flourished throughout Europe • Lutheranism (Germany & Scandinavia), Anglicanism (England), & Calvinism (Scotland, United Provinces, Swiss cantons, German states) • Catholicism still strong in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, & Habsburg Empire • 18th cent. – Catholic states started to push for more control over churches in their countries. • “Nationalization” meant controlling the papacy & Jesuit Order • Jesuits had a great deal of political power based on influence in colonial holdings, made many political enemies • 1773: Spain & France demanded Pope Clement XIV dissolve the Jesuit Order • end of the Jesuits paralleled by decline in Papal power

14. Toleration & Religious Minorities • out of political necessity, toleration of certain creeds began by 17th cent. • Louis XIV turned back the clock, persecuting non-Catholics in the early 18th cent. • Austria - Toleration Patent of 1781 recognized Catholic public practice & granted right to private worship for Lutherans, Calvinists, & Greek Orthodox • in all other ways, Austrians were equal Toleration of the Jews • remained the despised religious minority of Europe • largest # of Jews (Ashkenazic) lived in Eastern Europe • restricted in movement • forbidden to own land or hold jobs • pay special taxes • subject to periodic popular wrath • Sephardic Jews - had been expelled from Spain in 15th cent. • settled in Turkish lands, also cities such as Amsterdam, Venice, London, & Frankfurt where they were free to work in banking & commercial activities • many philosohes denounced persecution, but still ridiculed Jewish customs • Austria: eased restrictions on Jews, but still own land or worship publicly

15. Popular Religion in 18th Century • no records on regular attendance, but 90-95% Catholics went to mass on Easter • people focused on veneration of saints, pilgrimages, worship of relics • seen by clergy as “more superstitious than devout” • In areas of Europe where rationalism & deism became more influential, pietism developed • Pietism : movement to foster a personal experience w/ God as focus of true religious experience • spread by teachings of Count Nikolaus Zinzendorf (1700-1760) • opposed rationalizing Christian faiths, said “He who wishes to comprehend God with his mind becomes an atheist.” • desire for deep spiritual experience in England unmet until the advent of John Wesley (1703-1791) & Methodism • sought to bring “glad tidings” of salvation to all people • appealed more to lower classes of society, ignored by Anglican Church • “Methodists” proved that spiritual experience had not been totally drowned out by the search for reason