The Vietnam War

1. The Vietnam War Cold War

2. Causes of US Involvement in Vietnam • US policies developed by George Kennan’s Long Telegram - Truman Doctrine - Containment Policy. • Domino Theory. Communism began in China (1949) and with the Kremlin’s help Commies would gradually dominate Asia. Korean War fresh in peoples’ memories • Remember, Cuba was lost. Perhaps Commies will get to Latin-America!

3. However • American policy makers often overlooked the desire of nations to be independent of Europe, the USA, the Soviet Union, and China. • The Vietnamese craved independence. Many were socialist because of the desire for major land reform and freedom from economic exploitation.

4. Vietnam • Vietnam was dominated by foreign powers – China – France – Japan – France (again) - USA - finally independent • Before World War II France ruled much of Indo-China which included Vietnam. • Japan invaded Vietnam during WW II • Ho Chi Minh, although a Marxist was primarily a fierce nationalist who fought against the Japanese and french. After the Japanese surrendered he controlled much of Vietnam.

5. French Return, 1945 • The USA was not supportive of France, a colonial power, taking Vietnam back. American officials not very happy. (Atlantic Charter, 1941). FDR/Truman not keen on colonial domination. • But the French got entangled in a guerrilla war with communist Ho Chi Minh who had declared that Vietnam was independent (Democratic Republic of Vietnam). • If FDR had lived it mighthave been different. But, Truman and Eisenhower took a hardline with commies so the USA “held its nose” and assisted the France, the European colonial power.

6. Stoessinger • He makes the point that Ho Chi Minh was quite like by Americans in the State department after World War II • Truman not keen on helping the French early on. • But Truman influenced by what he saw of communism in Eastern Europe and later Korea. • Gradually France is seen as an ally against communism

7. French offer limited independence, 1949 Bo Dai – French Choice as Head of State Ho Chi Minh – popular support Communist Gets Chinese and USSR support BUT always remember that Ho had no love of China or Russia – Independence was his goal. Vietnam was a peasant society. USA feared he was like the Polish or East-German governments. • Capitalist • Gets US endorsement • There would be elections to unify Vietnam – 2 years.

8. Eisenhower, 1952 • Eisenhower, still had the Korean War on his mind. He saw Ho Chi Minh as another instrument of international communism. He believed in the “Domino Theory.” Felt that Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Burma, and Japan would fall to communism if Vietnam went commie. • Saw Vietnam as vital to US global interests. It wasn’t and isn’t. • French began to lose in Vietnam and the US began to give aid – 80% of French military budget.

9. Stoessinger • Eisenhower believed that China would get militarily involved in Vietnam – just like Korea. • The truth is that Ho Chi Minh didn’t trust China. Vietnam has never trusted China and doesn’t today! • But, China did give aid to Vietnam – just enough to keep them fighting against the French. • USA determined to help France against Ho Chi Minh. • China determined to help Ho against France • Already a “Proxy War”.

10. French Defeat at Dien Bien Phu, 1954 • General Giap, the communist general skillfully combines guerrilla fighting techniques and regular positional tactics. Like Mao Zedong. • French defeated. • The USA just finished in Korea. Congress made it clear – no more Koreas. • Yet, Eisenhower even considered a tactical nuclear strike – notice, Eisenhower modified Truman Containment Policy to be more forward leaning! (aggressive)

11. Vietnam Divided Geneva Accords, 1954 South Vietnam - Capitalist North Vietnam - Communist Ho pressured by the USSR and China to accept a division of Vietnam Ho agreed to stop fighting because he believed that he would win a political victory through national elections promised in two years – the elections didn’t happen • The USA does not sign the Geneva Accords • Does not support the elections planned. • USA chooses Ngo DinhDiem because he was: • Anti – Commie • Roman Catholic

12. USA supports South Vietnam • Remember, the USA does nor sign the Geneva Accords – When the USA feared that Ho might win a nation wide election they advised Diem to call-off the election. • Diem and his brother became increasingly corrupt and brutal. • They do nothing to reform Vietnam – land rents etc. Like Jiang in China. • Although anti-French, Diem was Roman Catholic and was at odds with the Buddhist majority.

13. Fighting Resumes - Vietcong in the South • The Communists in the South (Vietcong) begin to fight a guerrilla campaign against Diem. • Diem couldn’t defeat them. Popular support in countryside – think Mao. • China supports this effort. Initially, the USSR is unsupportive– later will. • USA increases its aid to Diem even though he is very unpopular – USA not happy with Diem! • In 1960 Ho Chi Minh openly encourages the Vietcong

14. Kennedy becomes President, 1960& Flexible Response • Just like with the Berlin Wall Crisis and Cuban Missile Crisis Kennedy can’t be soft on Commies. • USA lost China in 1949 and failed to “win” in Korea. Can’t lose Vietnam. • Anyway, Kennedy was a “Cold Warrior.” • He and his advisors believed that China and the Soviet Union were acting in Vietnam behind the scenes. Not true. They are not in control. • Kennedy believed that the USA needed both a nuclear deterrent and traditional military to fight “limited wars.” Eisenhower – favored nuclear diplomacy. Neither Kennedy or Johnson drifted into war.

15. Kennedy Expands US Involvement in South Vietnam • Sent considerable monetary aid to South Vietnam. Sent more advisers. • Authorized the “strategic hamlet” system and search and destroy missions. • Agent Orange (defoliant) and Napalm authorized. • Didn’t work – seemed counter-productive. • Diem’s repressive policies, shooting into crowds, and scenes of Buddhist priests burning themselves to death did not help.

16. USA organizes Coup – Diem and his brother killed • The Kennedy administration became tired of supporting the unpopular regime of Diem. • A coup, supported by the USA, was arranged. Diem and his brother were killed. • This was only a few weeks before President Kennedy was assassinated. • In fairness, the US government did not want the murders to happen – can’t control everything. Johnson liked Diem.

17. Stoessinger on Kennedy • Stoessinger feels that Kennedy in a difficult position. President for 1000 days - hard to assess. • Bay of Pigs disaster forced him to be tough on communism • He was surrounded by advisers who believed a military solution could be achieved with high tech weapons. • But he was personally skeptical of an American victory. Before his death he had serious doubts about escalating the war.

18. Why did the USA increase its involvement in Vietnam? 1964 • Kennedy assassinated in November, 1963. • Johnson determined to escalate the war. • Looking for a pretext that Congress and the people would support. • Why? USA felt that it was losing face in South Vietnam. It was felt that China was bullying Taiwan and aiding communists in North Vietnam. Khrushchev in the middle – moderate! Mao viewed himself as the champion of the communist world.

19. Gulf of Tonkin Incident and Tonkin Resolution • The North Vietnamese accused of attacking US destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. • The USA struck back at North Vietnam widening the war. • Congress authorized President Johnson to take all necessary steps to defend South Vietnam • Operation Rolling Thunder (1965). Months of bombing – failed to save the South or cow the North. Air supremacy and bombing doesn’t win wars by itself. But important.

20. US Tactics • USA had complete control of the skies – Air supremacy. • Dropped more bombs (explosive capacity) on North and South Vietnam in three years than were dropped on Germany, Japan, and Italy in the whole of World War II. • The Vietcong in the South were elusive. Aided from the North via the Ho Chi Minh trail (Cambodia) • Tunnels, booby traps, guerrilla warfare • North Vietnam received aid from China and USSR.

21. Stoessinger: Kennedy & Johnson • Kennedy’s & Johnson’s advisers placed great value on American air power and general technical and managerial efficiency. Their advisers believed that the ground conditions were better than Korea. Not too difficult. • President Johnson ramped up the war – the war we all think. Operation Rolling Thunder etc. • Johnson a tragic person. Hubris, machismo, and ego his undoing. Sad. Compared to Ho Chi Minh. • Domestic policies were successful - Civil Rights.

22. Why didn’t the USA send troops to the North? • USA didn’t want to expand the war - like in Korea. Remember what happened? China became involved. Could go nuclear. • China was also cautious - helped the North with weapons and technical and non-military personnel that freed North Vietnamese to fight. • China encouraged North Vietnam NOT to seek peace with the USA (1964-1968) but didn’t want a war with the USA. Mao clever. Later, Nixon will reach out to China. China will respond favorably.

23. Tet Offensive (Chinese New Year) • The Viet Cong guerrilla forces in the South with the North Vietnamese soldiers attacked a large number of American military installations and other targets. Even the US Embassy in Saigon was attacked. • The US beat back these attacks but it was becoming increasingly clear that the war was not being “won” and that the American goal of containing communism was not going well. • The financial cost of the war along with the cost of Johnson’s Great Society domestic initiatives was being felt at home • The USA was gradually changing its views - The My Lai Massacre and students demonstrations harmed the war effort.

24. People were not sure what the goal of the war was at this point. • People were generally still very patriotic

25. 1968 a difficult year. • Tet Offensive – Television coverage • MyLai Massacre – Television coverage • Election year. Johnson decided not to run. • MLK assassinated. Riots. Television Coverage • RFK assassinated – Television coverage • Chicago student protests – Democratic Convention – Television Coverage • War Protests: Television Coverage • All a bit crazy. • USA begins to look for a way to leave Vietnam – Peace talksoffered North Vietnam agreed – but took forever.

26. Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger • Nixon gets much deserved criticism for corrupt political practices domestically but his foreign policy does indicate that he possessed skills. • Nixon recognized that Vietnam wasn’t important strategically. He recognized that the Soviet Union’s economy was weak and that the Soviet Union’s fear of a US/ China rapprochement would permit the USA to gain a diplomatic advantage. • Likewise, he understood he had some bargaining chips with China.

27. President Nixon – His goal was “Peace with Honor” • Nixon played the “China Card.” Henry Kissinger arranged for Mao and Nixon to meet – making Russia uncomfortable. • No longer was the Cold War simply a bi-polar (USA vs. USSR)conflict but a multi-polar conflict with the USA taking advantage of a rivalry betweenthe USSR and China. • The USSR and China shared a contested border and had ideological rivalries going back to Khrushchev and Mao. • Nixon recognized the Soviet Union was economically weak and offered them economic aid if they helped pressure the North to end the war. The USSR withdrew important weapons from North Vietnam

28. USA and China • In 1971 Nixon visited China and met Mao. • In the years that followed: • The USA eventually allowed China to join the United nations as China’s representative in the Security Council • The USA would withdraw its military from Taiwan provided China helped broker a peace in Vietnam – without letting the USA lose face. • China would refrain from threatening Taiwan. BUT The Watergate Scandal lost Nixon the “authority” to get congressional approval on the United Nations agreement. Happened in 1978.

29. The USA and the Soviet Union • Nixon was able to worry the Soviet Union by flirting with China, its Communist rival • Nixon offered: If the Soviet Union helped end the Vietnam War the USA would provide economic aid to the stagnating Soviet Economy. • Also, the USA would calm its Iron Curtain rhetoric generally. All part of Détente with the USA and USSR. They learn to accommodate each other.

30. President Nixon – Peace with HonorUSA & Vietnam • Vietnamisation of the war – The US began to withdraw ground troops and train South Vietnamese troops to replace them. However, US air support remained. • Popular in USA - draft reduced • Get the North to the negotiating table. Use a carrot & stick approach. Bomb and talk. If the North became stubborn begin massive bombing. • Began bombing Cambodia (Ho Chi Minh Trail)

31. But the peace process was very slow • Fighting continued. The South Vietnamese troops did not do well. Why do you think? • The USA began withdrawing but would bomb the North very heavily if the talks stalled. • January 1st, 1973 a ceasefire was agreed. North Vietnam and South Vietnam remained divided. USA guaranteed this.

32. The End of the War • In March 1975 the North invaded South Vietnam. Congress did not permit Gerald Ford to authorize US involvement to assist its ally. • Without US air support the South were overwhelmed and retreated. • Americans watched in disbelief as loyal Southern Vietnamese tried to scramble on to American helicopters in the hope of escaping Saigon. Very sad. • It was not peace with honor.

33. What was the effect of the Vietnam War on US Foreign Policy? • US horrified. Cambodia and Laos lost to communism as well. • Popular support for communism ‘trumped’ super power global authority. Neither the USA, USSR, or China seemed to be able to “control” Vietnam. • In 1979 China and Vietnam went to war and Vietnam “held its own”.

34. Stoessinger: Vietnam ConclusionPage 113 • Vietnam started as a mild toothache and ended like a pestilence. • Exaggerated fears and hopes • People lost respect for their government • Universities disrupted • Economy bloated by war inflation • If the USA had not fought the war then Vietnam would have gone communist. • He says not worth the “butcher’s Bill.”

35. Détente 1972-1979 • After 1975 the USA began to disengage from “containing” communism country by country and begin to look at the larger global picture. • Henry Kissinger was the architect of a policy of détente. He believed that the USA should look at the larger global picture than obsess over individual dominoes or regions • Moreover, the USA temporarily lost confidence and was determined to avoid a ground war. • Seeing this passivity by the USA, the Soviet Union decided to become adventurous in Afghanistan in 1979. This proved to be a greater disaster for the USSR than the Vietnam War was for the USA. • The USA had political and economic strength and stability that would allow it to recover from the Vietnam War. The USSR did not.

36. Essays that touch on Vietnam • Evaluate the importance of airpower in 20th Century wars? • To what extent did guerrilla warfare determine the outcome of the Vietnam War? • How and why did technological developments play an important part in 20th century wars? • To what degree do you agree that war accelerates social change. • The most important military development of the 20th Century was the development of nuclear weapons. • Assess the economic and social impact of the Vietnam War. • “War causes more suffering to women than to men.” “War liberates Women.” Discuss. • No 20th century war could be called a limited war.” To what extent do you agree with this assertion. • Many 20th century wars had the characteristics of both limited and total war.” To what extent do you agree with this statement.