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Educating Language Minority Learners in the U.S.

Educating Language Minority Learners in the U.S. Seminar 1 February 4, 2008 Jeannette Mancilla-Martinez Harvard Graduate School of Education Gutman 303. Seminar 1: Educating L2 Learners in the U.S. Seminar 2: Pedagogical Models. Seminar 6: Disability vs. Exposure. Seminar 3:

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Educating Language Minority Learners in the U.S.

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  1. Educating Language Minority Learners in the U.S. Seminar 1 February 4, 2008 Jeannette Mancilla-Martinez Harvard Graduate School of Education Gutman 303

  2. Seminar 1: Educating L2 Learners in the U.S. Seminar 2: Pedagogical Models Seminar 6: Disability vs. Exposure Seminar 3: Reading Words & Comprehending Text Seminar 5: Spelling, Grammar, & Writing Seminar 4: Vocabulary & Academic Language

  3. Language Minority (LM) Learners Refers to individuals from homes where a language other than a societal language is actively used, who therefore have had the opportunity to develop some level of proficiency in a language other than a societal language. A language-minority student may be of limited second-language proficiency, bilingual, or essentially monolingual in the second language. August & Hakuta, 1997

  4. Terminology • Societal/national/official language • ESL: English as a Second Language • EFL: English as a Foreign Language • ELL: English Language Learners • LEP: Limited English Proficient • L1: First Language • L2: Second Language

  5. Societal/national/official language • Societal language • One, often one of several, of the languages used in a country • National language • A language considered to be the chief language in a country • Official language • A language mandated for use in official government transactions and communications, in courts of law, and in laws and regulations governing the nation as a whole August & Shanahan, 2006

  6. English as a Second Language (ESL) • Students whose native language is not English and are learning English as a second language in an English speaking country

  7. English as a Foreign Language (EFL) • Students whose native language is not English and are learning English in a non-English speaking country

  8. English-language Learners (ELL) • Students whose native language is not English

  9. Limited English Proficient (LEP) • Term often used in state and federal regulations to refer to English Language Learners (ELLs)

  10. Background Characteristics • Some have strong academic preparation; others arrive with limited formal schooling • 20% of all ELLs at the high school level and 12% at the middle school level have missed 2 or more years of schooling since age 6(Ruiz deValesco & Fix, 2000) • Not necessarily literate in their first language • Gaps in educational background; school routines, expectations

  11. Immigrant Children vs. Children of Immigrants • Immigrant Children • Born outside the U.S. • Children of Immigrants • U.S.-born to immigrant parents • 61% live in households where one or both parents are non-citizens

  12. Growing Population of Immigrant Families • 5 states with most rapid growth between 1990-2000: • North Carolina (270%) • Nebraska (269%) • Arkansas (244%) • Nevada (236%) • Georgia (210%)

  13. 4th Grade Reading: Non-ELLs vs. ELLs 50th %ile 18th %ile

  14. 8th Grade Reading: Non-ELLs vs. ELLs 50th %ile 14th %ile

  15. BICS and CALP • BICS = Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (2 years) • CALP = Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (at least 5 years) • Essentially underscoring the distinction between conversational fluency and grade-appropriate academic proficiency Cummins, 1979

  16. Threshold Hypothesis • Aspects of bilingualism which might positively influence cognitive growth are unlikely to come into effect until the child has attained a certain minimum (or threshold) level of competence in the L2 Cummins, 1978

  17. Developmental Linguistic Interdependence • A child’s L2 competence is partly dependent on the level of competence already achieved in the L1 at the time when intensive exposure to L2 begins • Believes there is a common underlying cognitive/academic proficiency which is common across languages, and which makes transfer of literacy-related skills from L1 to L2 possible • Experience with EITHER can promote development of the other, given adequate motivation and exposure Cummins, 1978

  18. Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) Cummins, 1984

  19. Political Issues • Demographic change • immigration, ethnicity, language • shift in political power • Increasing enrollment of ELLs • More than doubled in the past decade • Power relations: Societal languages, colonial languages, indigenous languages • Finances • Quality of education • literacy of the population

  20. Policy and Practice • Influencing Factors: • Political leadership • Immigration patterns • Supreme court rulings • Language debates • Research

  21. 1850-99 1900-09 1920-29 1940-49 1960-69 1970-79 Bilingual Education state laws German Bilingual Education; from 1910-1919 = anti-German sentiment & language restrictions Lau v. Nichols; Office of Civil Rights Task Force Visits Adult/child ESL classes English only laws in 15 states after the war Bilingual Research; Bilingual Education Act signed into law

  22. 1980s 1984 1990-99 2000-present day Demographic shifts; Population of L2 speakers = 40% in US English-only programs accepted under mandate of bilingual education; U.S. English & English First groups Prop 203; Question 2; NCLB Ron Unz; Prop 227

  23. Policy & Practice Today • Phase of English-only activism • e.g. English for the Children • Based on concerns about bilingual education • ‘Rights’ of children associated with English learning • Length of time vs. quality of English learning

  24. Policy & Practice Today • Class sizes • Native language proficiency • Shortages of bilingual teachers • Overall academic performance • Demographics • Community goals • Resources

  25. Banning Bilingual Education • California (1998) • Arizona (2000) • Massachusetts (2002) • These states account for more than one-half of non-native English speakers

  26. California The way it was • Bilingual education implemented for nearly 30 years in CA

  27. California The battle begins • The 1990s • 1992: Governor Wilson vetoes new bilingual education bill, arguing it would limit the flexibility of local school boards • 1996: Four school districts granted “waivers” by State Board of Education exempting them from compliance with the provisions of the Bilingual Education Act

  28. California 1998 • “English for the Children” (Proposition 227) wins with 61% of vote • All children in CA public schools to be taught in English to learn English • Sheltered English immersion for English learners should not exceed 1 year during the transitional period

  29. California Most recently • 1999: State Board of Education eliminates the redesignation criteria so each of the 1,000 districts required to set own criteria for classifying students as Fluent English Proficient (FEP) • Proportion of ELLs receiving bilingual instruction dropped from 30% to 8%, proportion receiving SDAIE increased • Little or no evidence of differences in EL performance by model of instruction across all analyses in 2003-2004 • Likelihood of ELL meeting linguistic and academic criteria needed to reclassify them to fluent English proficient status after 10 years is less than 40%

  30. Arizona The way it was • 16% ELLs • Only 30% of students eligible for language services were involved in true bilingual education programs

  31. Arizona 2000 • “English for the Children” (Proposition 203) wins with 63% of vote • One year of English immersion instruction

  32. Massachusetts The way it was • MA first state in nation to enact bilingual education (1971) • 3% of ELLs in K-12 students served by bilingual classes • Bilingual program “trigger” = 20 students of a single language group district-wide

  33. Massachusetts 2002 • English Immersion- English only (Question 2) wins with 68% of vote • Non-English speakers in English immersion classes for 1 year, then mainstreams • Teachers can use ‘minimal amount’ of student’s native language • Teacher can be sued for ‘willfully and repeatedly’ violating Question 2 • Students can sign waivers if they are 10 years or older or for other ‘academic needs

  34. Massachusetts Most recently • MA Legislature voted to allow two-way bilingual programs to continue under English immersion mandate. • Two-way immersion classes allow English and non-English speaking children to learn each other’s languages simultaneously. • Program popular, but serve a very small fraction of the 51,000 ELL in the state. • Gov. Romney vetoed this legislation, but House and Senate overrode his vetoes. • This legislation counters Question 2’s intention of limiting bilingual ed to older students.

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