PSY 6450 Psychology of Work

PSY 6450 Psychology of Work Unit 1 Schedule: Today and Monday: Lecture Wednesday, 9/10: Exam

PSY 6450 Unit 1 • Some facts and a little history of I/O • Aamodt • Certification and licensing of behavior analysts • Dickinson paper • Differences between I/O psychology and OBM • Bucklin et al. (2000) • Written essential material into SOs • History of OBM • Dickinson (2000) • 20th anniversary issue of JOBM New name for our I/O programs: IOBM MA and Ph.D.

SO 1: I/O vs. Business Fields, #1 • The application of psychological principles distinguishes I/O from related business fields • HRM texts advocate using unstructured interviews for selection; I/O has shown these are much less effective than other methods • Business advocates the use of Myers-Briggs to select and coach employees; I/O does not • Business advocates the use of “stretch” goals; I/O does not • Business advocates EOM programs; I/O does not (2 differences and explain each, giving examples; little hard to abstract out)

Daniels’ Oops: 13 management practices that waste time and money • Employee of the month programsand most other reward/recognition programs • Stretch goals • Performance appraisal • Ranking employees • Rewarding things a dead man can do • Salary & hourly pay • You did a good job, but… • The sandwich method of providing feedback (good, bad, good) • Overvaluing smart, talented people • The budget process • Promoting people no one likes • Downsizing • Mergers, acquisitions (no accidents, no errors, be at your workstation) (Enron, JPMorgan, 5.8 billion trading/investment)

SO 1: I/O vs. Business Fields, #2 • I/O focuses on factors that affect the people; business focuses on factors that affect running a business* • Business courses: accounting, finance, marketing, business law, corporate policy, • Psychology courses: training and development, selection and placement, systems analysis, experimental methodology (permitting evaluation of interventions) *However, there is clearly overlap: Psychology of work vs. organizational behavior and management; systems analysis vs. business process management and supply chain management, for example. (recommend that all of our students take accounting)

Four basic areas of I/O psychology* (NFE) • Personnel Selection and Placement • Main area of emphasis for I/O • Not emphasized in OBM • Training and Instructional Design • Largest area of employment for MAs • Performance Management • Focus of this course • Systems Analysis - Organizational Development *these differ from Aamdot’s list: his are more general (Note: not counseling or clinical. EAP programs - counseling/clinical/social work degrees; recent health and wellness programs - yes)

SO 3: The I and O in I/O Psychology • Industrial • Focuses on the individual worker/position • Determining the requirements of each job/position • Selecting individuals who have those requirements • Training individuals to improve their competency • Organizational • Any aspect of the organization and structure that affects performance and/or satisfaction • Reward/pay systems • Feedback systems • Organizational structure (systems analysis) (distinction that has little relevance today, overlap between the two, but remains in the name)

Some I/O history: First area of application • SO4A: The oldest area of application and the one that still dominates today is Personnel Selection & Placement. • Main difference between I/O programs and OBM programs. • SO4B: Personnel Selection got started by selection and placement of military personnel in WWI & WWII • Clinical tests, typically intelligence and personality tests, and used them to test recruits (emphasis influences other aspects of training - statistical methods used to determine reliability and validity of tests - job relatedness; SO8 – Aamodt, at least 5 stats courses in PH.D. IO)

SO5: Putting the “O” in I/O psychology • One of the greatest episodes in the formation of I/O according to many: Hawthorne Studies in the 1930s • Heretofore restricted to personnel issues such as selection and training (the I in I/O) • Expanded to: • Human relations • Quality of work environment • Attitudes • Satisfaction and group morale

SO6: Personnel Selection (NFE) • I/O expanded greatly when Congress passed Title VII Civil Rights Act, 1964 • Banned unfair discrimination against minorities and females • I/O has a “lock” on personnel selection as a profession Other EEO Laws: • Age Discrimination • Vietnam/Disabled • Veterans • Americans with • DisabilitiesAct (overlap between I/O and OBM and other areas: mgt – 0% MBA programs, human resources, Industrial engineer - selection remains I/O. don’t deal with laws and issues here, personnel selection)

SO9: Where do I/O psychologists work? • 10A: Ph.D.s (learn top three for exam) • Higher education 40% • Consulting firms 25% • Private Industry 24% • Public Government 8% • 10B: MAs (learn top two for exam) • Private Industry 44% • Consulting firms 37% • Public Government 11% • Higher education <1% (note difference PhD universities vs. industry; difference MA, private, more likely to work in private business with MA; consulting firms, interesting data, first time HSS)

SO10: $$ Salaries - SIOP Survey 2012 (NFE) $ PhD median starting same for applied & profs $ Profs significantly lower than applied $ Female median is 15% lower than males but first significant decrease-and least since-1982! (High starting salary for MAs - $40-$50 K; last pertains to PhD&MA combined; mean salaries 20% lower; about 50% of students are now female; 14% when I got my IO degree in 1977; WMU figures in Sos; expt inst. ranks lower; fulls paid 12% less than males; Differences are less than in the past; university has gender equity committees looking into this/reduce it. Dr. Baker & Fuqua)

SO11: Primaryprofessional organization for I/O psychology Facts about I/O psychology Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychology Web site: www.siop.org Also, SIOP is Division 14 of APA (Behavior Analysis is Division 25)

SO12: Primary journal for I/O psychology (NFE) Facts about I/O psychology Journal of Applied Psychology Note list of 22 journals in Table 1.5 JOBM is not included (little cross-fertilization between IO psychology and OBM: At this point in time most OBM practitioners/students don’t know much about IO and vice versa 2011 special issue of JOBM devoted to integration; well worth reading)

Facts about I/O psychology • SO13: Percentage of PhD psychologists who are I/O psychologists 4% 50% of APA’s 96,000 psychologists are clinical, counseling and school psychologists Thus, it’s not surprising that people don’t know about us

SO14: Growth of IO (nfe) (I graduated in 1977 with my MA degree in IO)

SO15: Licensing of IO Psychologists (this slide NFE) • Very different than clinical psychology • Varies from state to state • Some require it, most don’t • Some states preclude it - i.e., MI • Educational and experiential requirements focus on clinical/counseling courses and internships • Academics (who do not practice) do not have to be licensed (next few sos, licensing in IO psychology, and certification/licensing in BA)

SO15: SIOP opposes licensing - why? • SIOP maintains that I/O psychologists • Should be able to be licensed • But should not be required to be licensed • Main reason why licensing is not needed • Licensing is designed to protect the public in health care areas (mental and behavioral health). I/O psychologists are not health care providers and do not deal with vulnerable populations. • Same argument OBM practitioners are making about license laws for behavior analysts • SIOP successfully blocked many states from passing license laws ~15 years ago (licensing originally to protect public - vulnerable populations, health care areas Next slide, certification/licensing of behavior analysts,)

Certification vs. Licensing, Behavior Analysts • Differences • Certification is voluntary, licensing is legally required • Certification is overseen by an international credentialing board, the BACB, and licensing is overseen by states • Because of that the requirements for certification are the same from state to state and, in fact, globally; while the requirements for licensing vary from state to state, just like the licensing of I/O psychologists (independent from ABAI; compliance overseen by licensing boards established by the state; Legal penalties for violating license laws , 19 states have license laws)

Requirements for Certification and Licensing are similar: Why? • Certification predated licensing • National certification began ~1998, licensing began ~2009/2010 • BACB anticipated licensing and developed and posted a “model” license law on its web site to assist states • States: why re-invent the wheel when a well-respected organization had already developed standards and an exam? • Certified behavior analysts were typically the ones who advocated for license laws and spearheaded their adoption (In almost all states, the requirements for licensing are the same or similar to requirements for certification; some states, identical; in a few you must be certified to be licensed; any event, similar. )

SOs16 & 17: Why license laws? • To protect at risk-individuals seeking behavior analytic clinical services • To accompany autism insurance laws that have recently been passed, specifying and regulating the individuals who can receive insurance reimbursement • Some behavior analysts believe license laws should protect all consumers, not just at-risk individuals (also thus protecting the field in general) • Some believe that we will not achieve the same status as other professionals (doctors, licensed clinical psychologists) unless we are licensed (first two are the main ones; some states use certification as standard; Employees, athletes, college students, etc.;because of these differing views, two broad category of laws)

SO19: Two types of laws • Restrictive laws • Only behavior analysts who provide clinical services to individuals need to be licensed, for example • Those who work with children diagnosed with autism • Those who work with individuals with developmental and intellectual disabilities • Those who work with seniors with dementia • Broad title and practice laws • You cannot call yourself a behavior analyst (title) or practice behavior analysis (practice) unless you are licensed (Skip to 19, come back to 18. in general, two types of laws, although one state has a “title” law; first type relates to the first 2reasons on the previous slide, the last type relates to all four reasons;)

States that have each type (according to Dr. D.) • Restrictive laws: 14 states • Alabama, Alaska, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Nevada, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, and Virginia • Michigan has a restrictive law pending (it is in the legislature) • Broad title and practice laws: 5 states • Arizona, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Missouri, Wisconsin • Ten laws were passed last year: all were restrictive • Due to revision of the BACB model license law in 2012, including wording for the potential exclusion of applied behavior analysts who provide non-clinical services, and explicitly OBM practitioners and applied animal trainers • Seems to be the trend (although again I could be wrong) (I could very well be wrong; it is hard to interpret the laws; talk more about this in the article)

SO18: Reasons why most OBMers are not certified and oppose licensing • OBM does not deal with at-risk individuals (same reason SIOP opposes licensing for I/O psychologists) • No insurance reimbursement is at stake – OBM clients are private pay and will always be private pay, thus our clients do not require it • Except for basic behavioral principles, the current certification process, particularly the exam, is not relevant for those in OBM (next slide, the fourth reason)

SO18: Reasons why most OBMers are not certified and oppose licensing: A fourth reason • *Licensing, given the current requirements, would detract from the training of our students • OBM students need different skills and training than those currently required for licensing (and certification) • Without increasing the number of credit hours in our graduate training program, we could not train our students as well (Note that I did not say are opposed to certification: that is voluntary. Also, I know I said 3 reasons in the Sos the fourth, which I consider to be the most important is actually an implication or result of the third)

Some Major Differences Between I/O and OBM Bucklin et al., 2000 (only highlight some important differences - embedded those in sos)

Purpose To identify similarities and differences with respect to topics and research methods used in OBM and traditional I/O psychology

Method • JAP • Authors reviewed every article in JAP between 1987 & 1997 (N = 997) • Classifications were primarily derived from Nolan et al. (1999) who previously analyzed articles in JOBM for the same years (N=119) • JOBM • JAP classification results were compared to JOBM data collected by Nolan et al. (1999)

Qualification on the data • VanStelle et al. (2012) published an updated review of the publications in JOBM • Reviewed articles published between 1998-2009 • I couldn’t use these updated data because there aren’t any comparisons with JAP • I compared the JOBM data from the two articles, however, and was struck by similarity of data (DVs, IVS, social validity; some of the differences simply reflect the interests of the academics)

SO21: No unifying theory in I/O (NFE) • I/O Psychology • No unifying theory historically • No unifying theory today • At least 10 motivational theories: Aamodt • At least 8 leadership theories: Aamodt • Motivational theories and leadership theories (already 18 different theories) • Leads to research and articles about who is right

SO21: Unifying theory of OBM (NFE) • OBM (emerged in the early 1960s) • Unifying theory of behavior analysis • Emerged from other areas in behavior analysis - programmed instruction (Brethower) - clinical psychology (Daniels, Gilbert) - experimental (Anderson, Brown) - general applied (Hopkins) - education (Sulzer-Azaroff) • Behavior analysis is unique - apply the same principles across all specializations (not only for topics within OBM)

SO22: Topics in JAP & JOBM 22A: Rank order top 3 in JAP • Selection & Placement • Statistical Analysis Procedures • Performance Appraisal • Productivity & Quality • Customer Satisfaction • Training and Development JAP JOBM

SO22B: Of top 12 topics, commonalities Only three!! • Productivity & Quality • Training & Development • Health & Safety

Differences (NFE) • Ranking : (most OBM articles dealth with productivity & quality issues, 5-10 measures; more breadth I/O)

SO23: Primary research strategy • Percentage of research articles that were experimental vs correlational (NFE) JOBM JAP Experimental 95% 40% Correlational 5% 60% • Primary research strategy • JOBM: Experimental • JAP: Correlational • What is the problem with correlational research? (in this and the next few Sos, I have rounded the %s to make it easier for you to learn)

SO24: Field vs. Laboratory Exp. (NFE) (NFE, but using this to make a point later, % reversed)

SO 25: Applied vs. Theoretical Research Studies (more applied studies in the VanStelle 2012 review– 73%)

OBM vs. I/O (NFE) • The percentage of experimental studies conducted in the field was much higher in JOBM JOBM = 80% JAP = 20% • The percentage of applied vs. theoretical experimental studies was much higher in JOBM JOBM = 45% JAP = 5% • Conclusion OBM is more applied and the gap between research and practice appears to be larger in I/O than in OBM

SO 28: Independent Variables, how many were the same? JAP (N=308) JOBM (N=60) • Antecedents/ 71% Information 2. Training 15% 3. Goals 10% 4. Feedback 8% 5. Monetaryconsequences 5% 6. Non-monetaryconsequences 1% 7. Praise .3% • Feedback 75% • Training 63% • Monetary 33%consequences • Antecedents/ 32%Information • Non-monetary 28%consequences • Goals 25% • Praise 18% • Punishment 5% • System design 2% (Moving to SO28: top 7 were the same, but proportion very different. JAP antecedents/JOBM consq, pack; Combined goals, feedback, consq.; not surprising I am covering the topics I am in this class; Not changed much in 2012 review; package interventions more effective, in sos articles)

SO 28: Independent variables in studies • In I/O • The main IV is antecedent/instructional control • Consequences are manipulated only rarely • 70% manipulated antecedents; only 15% examined feedback or consequences • In OBM • Antecedents are rarely used alone • Consequences are manipulated much more • Feedback, 75% and consequences, 65% • Package interventions are used much more frequently • This is an artifact of the types of studies conducted; a considerable more percentage of OBM studies are applied vs. lab studies in contrast to I/O studies

Dependent Variables (NFE) • JAP • Self-report measures were used in 50% of experimental studies and 76% of correlational studies; • Behaviors in only 5% of studies • JOBM • Products of behaviors (accomplishments) were used in 78% of experimental studies • Behaviors in 43%

History of OBM in the Private Sector1950 - 1980 Dickinson, 2000

SO31: When did OBM become visible? OBM started in the mid to late 1960s

Table 1: Lifetime Achievement or Outstanding Contributions Awards (NFE) • AubreyDaniels • Thomas Gilbert • Edward Feeney • Beth Sulzer-Azaroff • Thomas Mawhinney • Dale Brethower • William Redmon • Alyce Dickinson • Paul Brown • Geary Rummler • Chevron Chemical Corp (CLG) 12. Terry McSween 13. Jon Bailey 14. Maria Malott 15. D. Chris Anderson • William Abernathy • Scott Geller • John Austin • Dwight Harshbarger • Timothy Ludwig • Terry McSween • Judy Agnew • Alyce Dickinson (red: wmu connection, 10 of 23)

OBM Precursors: 1950s • SO32: Who is responsible for programmed instruction? • Skinner • The science of learning and the art of teaching, 1954 • Teaching machines, 1958 • Holland & Skinner, Analysis of Behavior, 1961 • SO33: First organized application of behavioral principles in business & industry • Programmed instruction (more on this later)

SO34: OBM precursors, cont. (NFE) • Applications in other areas in behavior analysis began before OBM • Authors who published the first applied article in the field of behavior analysis • Ayllon & Michael: The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer, JEAB, 1959 • Who is the father of behavior modification and thus the grandfather of OBM? (according to Hopkins) • Jack Michael

The 1960s: OBM gets started • Articles & books - fewer than 10 during the whole decade (NFE) • SO35: First professional organization • National Society for Programmed Instruction: 1962, 12 years before ABAI • Now, International Society for Performance Improvement (applied vs academic) • Dale Brethower, Geary Rummler, Don Tosti, Susan Meyer Markle, Tom Gilbert • www.ispi.org (great resource for jobs)

University of Michigan workshops (NFE) • U of M workshops, 1961-1969 • Center of Programmed Instruction • Brethower, Rummler, Gilbert, (& Malott) hooked up (B&R actually published first applied OBM article in Personnel in 1966) • There, programmed instruction led to performance-based instruction, which led to behavioral systems analysis • Brethower, Center for PI • Rummler, College of Business • Just for fun, go to the following web page and see an article from 1975 with Dr. Malott leading one of these workshops: www.aliciapatterson.org/APF001975/McCrea/McCrea06/McCrea06.html

SO36: Brethower’s accomplishments • Three main accomplishments • Programmed instruction • Performance-based instruction • Behavioral systems analysis • Other interesting things to know • Published first behavioral systems book in 1972. The book was published by a publishing firm called “Behaviordelia” - run by Dr. Dick Malott. • Was my advisor here at WMU!

SO37: How did PI lead to PBI then BSA? • Programmed Instruction • Very skilled at getting people to learn what they taught, but often the training did not transfer to the job • Performance-based instruction • Did training actually transfer to job? • Led to performance management - it wasn’t the training that was the problem, but the management system • Behavioral Systems Analysis (the BIG picture) • PBI and PM got transfer to the job, but… • Was the performance contributing to the mission/goals of the organization?

PSY 6450 Psychology of Work