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Exploring the Scientific Method in Geography and Geology

Discover the scientific method in action through observation, hypothesis, testing, and results in the fields of geography and geology. Gain insights from controlled experiments to uncover Earth's internal structure and plate tectonics.

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Exploring the Scientific Method in Geography and Geology

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  1. Scientific Method • Process • Observation • Careful; Include as many parameters as possible • Observations  Induction  Hypothesis • Hypothesis • Possible cause • Reflect past experience (educated guess) • Multiple (consider alternative explanations) • Testable • Falsifiable • Prediction • Hypothesis/Principle  Deduction  Prediction • Experiment • Experimental group, Control group, Replication • Results/Interpretation • Scientific Theory

  2. Fig. 1.21

  3. Scientific Method • Field Observations vs. Controlled Experiments • Field Observations (in situ) • Natural setting • Uncontrolled variables • Examples? • Controlled Experiment (usually ex situ) • Fewer uncontrolled variables • Test one or a few variable(s) at a time • Artificial setting (especially ex situ)

  4. Fig. 1.22

  5. Geography • World Ocean • Made up of multiple ocean basins • Covers 71% of earth’s surface • N. Hemisphere - 61% ocean • S. Hemisphere - 80% ocean • Continuous environment, with few barriers to movement - unlike land • Some barriers in the marine environment isolate organisms or groups of organisms from each other • Four major ocean basins • Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic • Smaller marginal seas • Caribbean Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Mexico

  6. Fig. 2.1

  7. Geography • Pacific Ocean • Largest (50%) and deepest basin - shrinking • Many islands, seamounts, atolls • Atlantic Ocean • Second largest basin - expanding • Best studied, especially North Atlantic • Close to European seagoing nations • Indian Ocean • Not well studied (e.g. coelacanth) • Arctic Ocean • Shallow • Low salinity (river inputs) • Ice cover (rotates with earth but slower)

  8. Geography • Southern Ocean • Only ocean that forms continuous circle around earth • Produces worst weather on earth • Extreme seasonal variability • Marginal Seas • Atlantic • North Sea, Baltic Sea, Caribbean Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Hudson Bay • Pacific • Bering Sea, Sea of Cortez, Gulf of Alaska, Sea of Japan • Indian • Arabian Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf • Southern • Ross Sea, Weddell Sea

  9. Fig. 2.2

  10. Geology • Internal Structure of Earth • Core • Composed mostly of iron and iron alloys • Estimated temperature of > 4000 oC • Solid inner core, liquid outer core - magnetic field • Mantle • Solid, very hot, flows but slowly • Crust - Why does crust float on mantle? • Solid, thin

  11. Fig. 2.3

  12. Geology • Plate Tectonics • Continental Drift • Apparent fit of continents (1620 - Sir Francis Bacon) • Similar geological formations on opposite sides of ocean basins • Related species and similar fossils on opposite sides of ocean basins • 1912 - Alfred Wegener proposed theory of continental drift but lacked mechanism • Concrete evidence for continental drift not obtained until 1960s

  13. Fig. 2.4

  14. Geology • Plate Tectonics • Mid-Ocean Ridge System • Discovered from sea floor mapping with SONAR during and after World War II • Largest geological feature on Earth • Ridges displaced in some areas by transform faults • Trenches • Conspicuous sea floor features • Especially common in the Pacific Ocean

  15. http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/global_topo_large.gif

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