The Firm, Production, and Cost The Cost of Production

1. The Firm, Production, and CostThe Cost of Production Lecture 15, 16 & 17 Chapter 10 Chapter 20

2. Forms of Business Organizations • There are five main ways of organizing the production of goods and services that are sold on markets: • Single Proprietorship – one owner who is personally responsible for everything that is done • Partnership – two or more joint owners, each of whom is personally responsible for all of the partnership debt

3. Forms of Business Organizations contd. • Limited Partnership has two types of partners : • General partners: run the business and have unlimited liability • Limited partners take no part in running of the business and their liability is limited to the amount they actually invest in the enterprise • Joint-stock company (Corporations) - is a firm which has an identity of its own. Its owners are not personally responsible for anything that is done in the name of the firm (though the Director may be)

4. Forms of Business Organizations contd. • Joint stock companies can be: • Public limited companies (PLC): the shares of the company are traded on the stock exchange market. Example? • Private limited companies (PVT): the shares are not sold on the stock exchange, instead they are owned by a group of private investors. Example? • Public corporations: nationalized industry, owned by the state; it is usually under the direction of a more or less independent state-appointed board

5. The financing of firms • Two types of capital: • Financial capital – the money capital required for the running of the business • It can be owner’s capital or borrowed from financial institutions • Real capital – the physical assets such as factories, machineries, stocks of material, finished goods etc.

6. Profit Maximization • Neoclassical theory of the firm states : • The desire to maximize profits is assumed to motivate all decisions taken within a firm, and such decisions are uninfluenced by who takes them. Thus, the theory abstracts from the peculiarities of the persons taking the decisions and from the organizational structure in which they work. • This assumption allows economists to predict firm behavior

7. Economic Costs • The economic cost/opportunity cost of any resource used to produce a good is the value or worth the resource would have in its best alternative use • Explicit costs: are the monetary payments made to those who supply labor services, materials, fuel, transportation services etc. Such money payments are for the use of resources owned by others

8. Economic Costs • Implicit costs: are the opportunity costs of using self-owned , self-employed resources. To the firm, the implicit costs are the monetary payments that self-employed resources could have earned in their best alternative use. • Economic Costs = explicit + implicit costs • Accounting Costs = explicit costs

9. Types of Profits • Accounting Profit = Total Revenue – Total (explicit) Cost • Economic Profit = Total Revenue - Total (explicit + implicit) Cost • Normal Profit is the cost of doing businesses: Implicit + explicit cost

10. Short Run and Long Run • Short Run : Fixed Plant The short run is a period too short for a firm to alter its plant capacity, yet long enough to permit a change in the degree to which the fixed plant is used (the firm can vary its output produced by using smaller or larger amounts of inputs while the plant capacity is fixed)

11. Short Run and Long Run contd. • Long Run : Variable Plant The long run is a period long enough for the firm to adjust the quantities of all the resources that it employs, including the plant size. It is a period long enough for firms to enter and exit the market. • The Short run and Long run vary from industry to industry! why?

12. Short Run Production Concepts A firm’s cost of producing a specific good depends on the price of resources used and the quantity required of these resources. The price of inputs is determined by their respective supply and demand functions Consider Labor as the only input for now!

13. Production of Firm • Total Product (TP): the total quantity of good produced • Marginal Product (MP): is the extra output or added product associated with adding a unit of a variable resource, in this case labor, to the production process • MP= ∆ in total product ∆ in labor input

14. Short Run Production Relationships • Average Product (AP): also called input productivity, output per unit of input • AP: Total Product Total units of input In case of labor: average product for labor is the output per unit of labor input Practice: Table 20.1 in class – draw curves

15. Law of Diminishing Returns • The law assumes that technology is fixed and thus the techniques of production do not change • As successive units of a variable resource (labor) are added to a fixed resource (capital, land etc), beyond some point the extra, or marginal product that can be attributed to each additional unit of the variable resource will decline. • Eg. Workers & Capital Equipment Crop & Land

18. Important Features (TP & MP) • MP is the slope of the total product curve • Where TP is increasing at an increasing rate, MP is rising (each extra unit of labor is adding more MP than the previous unit) • Where TP rising at a decreasing rate, MP is positive but falling (each extra unit of labor adds less to the TP than the last unit) • When TP is at a maximum, MP is zero • When TP declines, MP becomes negative

19. Important Features (MP & AP) • Where MP exceeds AP, AP rises • Where MP is less than AP, AP declines • MP intersects AP where AP is at a maximum • This follows from the simple mathematical concept of averages • The law of Diminishing Returns is embodied in the shapes of all 3 curves

20. Short-run Production Costs • Fixed, Variable and Total Costs • Fixed Costs (FC) – costs that do not vary with output. These costs are associated with the existence of a firm’s plant and must be paid even if output is zero (e.g. firm debts, bills, insurance premiums) • Variable Costs (VC) – costs are those that change with the level of output. They include payments for materials, fuel, power, transportation services, most labor and similar variable resources

21. Shape of the Variable Cost • Practice: Table 20.2, draw curves • Total Variable cost initially increases with a decreasing rate, (fourth unit, table 20.2), beyond the 4th unit, VC rises by increasing amounts for succeeding units of output • Shape of VC: when MP increases, fewer units of labor is needed to produce successive units of output; hence VC decreases for those units. • When diminishing returns set in, MP starts declining, larger & larger additional amounts of labor needed to produce successive units of output. TVC therefore, rises at an increasing rate.

22. $1100 1000 900 800 700 600 Costs 500 400 300 200 100 0 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Q Short-Run Production Costs Total Cost, Fixed and Variable Costs TC TC = TFC + TVC TVC Fixed Cost Total Cost Variable Cost TFC

23. TFC AFC = Q Per Unit, or Average, Costs • Average cost (AC) data are more meaningful for making comparisons with product price which is always stated in per-unit basis • Average Fixed Cost • AFC declines as the output increases. Why? • Spreading out overhead

24. TVC AVC = Q Per Unit, or Average, Costs • Average Variable Cost – • AVC is a U-shaped curve • It declines initially, reaches a minimum, and then increases again when diminishing returns set in AVC is derived from the TVC curve therefore: • Since, TVC reflects the law of diminishing returns, so AVC must also reflect the same

25. $200 150 100 Costs 50 0 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Q Short-Run Production Costs Average and Marginal Costs AFC ATC AVC AVC AFC

26. TC = AFC + AVC ATC = Q Change in TC MC = Change in Q • Average Total Cost - • Marginal Cost – • MC is the additional cost of producing 1 more unit of output

27. MC and MP • MC can also be calculated from the TVC column, as the only difference between the TVC and TC column is the constant amount of fixed cost • MC curve is the mirror image of the MP curve • If the price of the variable input stays constant, increasing marginal returns will be reflected in a declining MC, and diminishing returns in a rising MC

28. Average Product and Marginal Product Cost (Dollars) Short-Run Production Costs Production Curves AP MP Quantity of Labor Cost Curves MC AVC Quantity of Output

29. Relation Between MC, ATC & AVC • MC intersects AVC and ATC curves at their minimum points • When the amount (MC) added to total cost is less than the current ATC, ATC will fall • Conversely, when the marginal cost exceeds ATC, ATC will rise • As long as MC lies below ATC, ATC will fall and vice versa • At the point of intersection, ATC = MC, ATC has just ceased to fall, but has not started rising yet !

30. MC, AVC & AFC • The same holds true for AVC • MC intersects AVC at its minimum (the same concepts apply here) • MC has no relationship with FC • Shifts in Cost curves?

31. $200 150 100 Costs 50 0 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Q G 8.1 Short-Run Production Costs Average and Marginal Costs MC AFC ATC AVC AVC AFC

32. Long-Run Production Costs • Firm Size and Costs • Long-Run Cost Curve • Economies of Scale • Labor Specialization • Managerial Specialization • Efficient Capital • Diseconomies of Scale • Constant Returns to Scale

33. Long-Run Production Costs Long-Run ATC Curve ATC-1 ATC-5 ATC-2 ATC-4 ATC-3 Average Total Costs Output Any Number of Short-Run Optimum Size Cost Curves Can Be Constructed

34. Long-Run Production Costs Long-Run ATC Curve ATC-1 ATC-5 ATC-2 Long-Run ATC ATC-4 ATC-3 Average Total Costs Output The Long-Run ATC Curve Just “Envelopes” the Short Run ATCs

35. Long-Run Production Costs Alternative Long-Run ATC Shapes Diseconomies Of Scale Constant Returns To Scale Economies Of Scale Average Total Costs Long-Run ATC q1 q2 Output Long-Run ATC Curve Where Economies Of Scale Exist

36. Long-Run Production Costs Alternative Long-Run ATC Shapes Economies Of Scale Diseconomies Of Scale Average Total Costs Long-Run ATC Output Long-Run ATC Curve Where Costs Are Lowest Only When Large Numbers Are Participating

37. Long-Run Production Costs Alternative Long-Run ATC Shapes Diseconomies Of Scale Economies Of Scale Long-Run ATC Average Total Costs Output Long-Run ATC Curve Where Economies Of Scale Exist, are Exhausted Quickly, And Turn Back Up Substantially

38. Minimum Efficient Scale and Industry Structure • Minimum Efficient Scale (MES) • Natural Monopoly • Applications and Illustrations • Rising Cost of Insurance and Security • Successful Start-Up Firms • The Verson Stamping Machine • The Daily Newspaper • Aircraft and Concrete Plants

39. Don’t Cry Over Sunk Costs • Sunk Costs Irrelevant in Decision Making • Once Incurred, They Cannot Be Recovered • Compare Marginal Analysis to Find MC and MB • Previously Incurred Costs Do Not Impact the MB=MC Decision • Sunk Costs Are Irrelevant!

41. TFC TVC AFC = AVC = Q Q TC = AFC + AVC ATC = Q Change in TC MC = Change in Q Short-Run Production Costs • Per-Unit or Average Costs • Average Fixed Cost (AFC) • Average Variable Cost (AVC) • Average Total Cost (ATC) • Marginal Cost (MC)