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History of Problem Solving … Gestalt. Psychology 523 January 26th, 2006. Recap. Associationism Contiguity, Similarity, Repetition Faculty Psychology Powers of the mind Structuralism Used introspection technique; focused on elements of sensation and perception Wurzburg School
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History of Problem Solving … Gestalt Psychology 523 January 26th, 2006
Recap • Associationism • Contiguity, Similarity, Repetition • Faculty Psychology • Powers of the mind • Structuralism • Used introspection technique; focused on elements of sensation and perception • Wurzburg School • Applied introspection to problem solving tasks • Functionalism • Consciousness organizes thought; mediates stimulus and action; focus on process
Thorndike’s Connectionism (1874-1948) • Learning results from associations formed between stimulus and response (neural connections) • Trial and error learning • Cat puzzle box • S-R Theory • Law of effect • Law of readiness • Law of exercise • Identical Elements of Transfer
Examination of ISMS • Associationism • Faculty Psychology • Structuralism • Act Psychology • Functionalism • Behaviorism • Gestalt Theory
Behaviorism John B. Watson (1878-1958) • John B. Watson • Focused on ‘human behavior’ • No point to study inaccessible events of the mind • Instead must focus on S-R • Thinking is physical (muscular activities of the vocal chords) • Clark Hull • S-O-R • O -> drive, incentives, inhibitors,prior training, and habit family heirarchies • B.F. Skinner • Operant conditioning (1884-1952) (1904-1990)
Classic Issues in Problem Solving • Problem solver has a goal but lacks a clear solution. • How is an effective response acquired? • Issues: learning, past experience • Trial and error (Thorndike) • Insight (Yerkes; Kohler) • Problem solving set (Maier; Luchins & Luchins) • Transfer of principles (Thorndike vs. Katona; Wertheimer)
Gestalt Psychology (1880-1943) • Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka, and Max Wertheimer • Gestalt: ‘organized whole’ ‘configuration’ • Protest against structuralism • Psychological experience as emergent dynamics • Laws of organization (field theory) • Perception and problem solving • Situations have forces working on them • Problem: forces are unbalanced • Restructuring is a change in the situation an effort to balance the forces (1887-1967) (1886-1941)
Principles of Visual Organization • Figure-ground
Principles of Visual Organization • Proximity
Principles of Visual Organization • Similarity
Principles of Visual Organization • Good continuity
Principles of Visual Organization • Closure
Principles for Problem Solving(based on Ohlsson, 1984) Central Principles A. Every situation embodies a structure B. A situation can be subject to forces C. Restructuring changes relations Auxiliary D. Problems have gaps /stresses E. Restructuring moves towards better structure
Principles for Problem Solving When does restructuring occur? F. Unbalanced forces G. More likely if the situation is well analyzed H. More likely if the goal is well analyzed I. More likely if the after trying multiple times K. Restructuring is involuntary L.- N. Behavioral predictions Analysis of an example (nine-dot problem)
Luchins & Luchins (1922-2002)