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“THIRTY YEARS’ WAR” OR “RECOVERY OF EUROPE”?

“THIRTY YEARS’ WAR” OR “RECOVERY OF EUROPE”?. 1919: Germans establish a parliamentary democracy that seeks reconciliation with the Western democracies. April 1921: German reparations bill set at 132 billion gold marks (52% for France, 22% for Britain, 10% for Italy)

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“THIRTY YEARS’ WAR” OR “RECOVERY OF EUROPE”?

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  1. “THIRTY YEARS’ WAR” OR “RECOVERY OF EUROPE”? • 1919: Germans establish a parliamentary democracy that seeks reconciliation with the Western democracies. • April 1921: German reparations bill set at 132 billion gold marks (52% for France, 22% for Britain, 10% for Italy) • 1922: With the Treaty of Rapallo, Germany extends diplomatic recognition & commercial credits to the USSR. • 1924: The Dawes Plan creates a system to pay war reparations and encourages U.S. loans to Germany. • 1925/26: The Treaty of Locarno leads to German entry into the League of Nations. • 1929/30: The Young Plan lightens the reparations burden, and France evacuates the Rhineland.

  2. In early November 1918, Prince Max of Baden appealed to Friedrich Ebert of the SPD to become Chancellor, prevent a Communist revolution, and safeguard national unity.

  3. SPD leaders proclaim Germany a Republic from the balcony of the Reichstag on 9 November 1918.

  4. Communist insurgents in Berlin, January 1919

  5. The “Free Corps” crushed the Reds in the name of Ebert

  6. League for Combating Bolshevism: “BOLSHEVISM BRINGS WAR, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND HUNGER,” January 1919

  7. “Workers, burghers, farmers, soldiers of every German tribe: Unite in the National Assembly!”Parties supporting the Weimar Republic won over 75% of the vote in January 1919

  8. The first women elected to a German parliament (Weimar, 1919)

  9. “The Stab in the Back”(Nazi magazine cover, 1924)

  10. THE WEIMAR COALITION SUFFERED MASSIVEELECTORAL LOSSES IN JUNE 1920

  11. German Chancellor Joseph Wirth confers with Soviet Foreign Minister Georgy Chicherin at Rapallo, April 1922 German Foreign Minister Walter Rathenau, after signing the Treaty of Rapallo

  12. French troops occupy the Ruhr Valley, January 1923:Fears of French imperialism soon revived

  13. Germany’s hyper-inflation:A small businessman picks up cash for his weekly payroll, early summer, 1923 Weighing currency to determine its value, late summer, 1923

  14. Alfred Rosenberg and Adolf Hitler review marching Stormtroopers in Munich, 4 November 1923

  15. Nazi Stormtroopers outside Munich City Hall, 9 November 1923

  16. Postcard of Hitler in Landsberg Prison (1924), where he dictatedMein Kampf

  17. Gustav Stresemann made peace with France as Chancellor (Aug.-Nov. 1923) and Foreign Minister (1923-29). The U.S. banker Charles Dawes devised a new reparations plan in 1924….

  18. INTER-ALLIED WAR DEBTS IN 1919(in millions of dollars, see P.M.H. Bell, p. 22) John Maynard Keynes proposed in 1920 that all war debts and reparations be cancelled, but the U.S. government did not even consider debt forgiveness until 1931.

  19. When Ebert died in 1925, Germans elected Field Marshall Paul von Hindenburg as President of the Weimar Republic

  20. Gustav Stresemann & Aristide Briand,Co-Winners of the Nobel Prize for signing the Treaty of Locarno in 1925; Germany now entered the League

  21. THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS (1919-1940):Hope for world peace or fig leaf for French hegemony?

  22. MUSSOLINI AND THE RISE OF FASCISM 1911: As a left-wing socialist, Mussolini is jailed for opposing Italy’s imperialist war in Libya. December 1914: Mussolini resigns from the Socialist Party to champion intervention in the Great War. 1919: Mussolini founds a “Fascist National Party” to appeal to disgruntled combat veterans and patriotic youth. October 1922: Mussolini is appointed Prime Minister at the time of the “March on Rome.” 1924-26: The Fascists suppress all other political parties and all independent trade unions in Italy.

  23. Mussolini’s birthplace in Dovia di Predappio, a small town in northeast Italy (Forli Province) His father, a blacksmith and socialist, revered the populist nationalism of Garibaldi and Benito Juarez….

  24. Benito Mussolini(1883-1945, photographed in 1911):school teacher,revolutionary Marxist, editor of the main Italian Socialist newspaper, 1912-15.

  25. Mussolini as a volunteer in the Italian army, 1917.He founded an interventionist newspaper in 1915 and then served bravely at the front for nine months.

  26. A modern reenactment of a procession of lictors,who carried before the ancient consuls of Rome thefasces that symbolized their authority. In Italian fascio can refer to a bundle of sticks or a band of men.

  27. THE “FIAT SOVIET” IN TURIN, APRIL 1920,when 500,000 Italian metalworkers launched sit-down strikes for several months. Italy had the worst labor unrest of any country after the Great War.

  28. Mussolini founded his Fascist Party to appeal to workers and veterans with a socialist program, but the party soon lurched rightward

  29. Mussolini reviews the Black Shirts at a Fascist Party conference in Naples, 24 October 1922; his call for a“March on Rome” caused soul-searching at the royal court…

  30. King Victor Emmanuel III (1869-1947; reigned 1900-46).He greatly feared the Communists.

  31. The prime minister designate rejoins the Black Shirts as they arrive in Rome on 28 October 1922 (with the war heroes Italo Balbo, Cesare de Vecchi, & General Emilio de Bono)

  32. Benito Mussolini as “il Duce,” the Leader-- but at first he governed in a coalition with Liberals and Nationalists

  33. THE CONSOLIDATION OF FASCIST RULE 1924-26: Matteotti Crisis provokes Mussolini to impose outright dictatorship. Fascists suppress all other parties and independent trade unions. 1927-29: A new network of state-sponsored “syndicates” organizes workers, industrialists, artisans, and farmers. 1929: Mussolini signs Lateran Treaty and a Concordat with Pope Pius XI. Mussolini always talked about reviving the glorious Roman Empire, but for his first twelve years in office he maintained cordial relations with France and Great Britain.

  34. Mussolini breaks ground for a new building and then takes part in the “battle of wheat” in Littoria in 1932.See P.M.H. Bell, pp. 66-7, on Fascist rhetoric.

  35. Mussolini with his wife and five children in 1930 At a Vatican reception with Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli

  36. FASCISTS PROCLAIMED A GRAND PROGRAM OF INDUSTRIALIZATION BUT HAD ONLY MODEST SUCCESS:Steel production (1,000’s of metric tons) Italian production did not decline as much as French during the Great Depression because of increased spending on arms….

  37. Mussolini reviews a new detachment of mini-tanks, 1932: Western leaders believed that his bark was worse than his bite…

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