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1. Ch. 3 Policy 03_00-CS.JPG

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6. Policy refers to a formal set of plans intended to address problems and decision making • Public policy is made by government (laws, regulations, orders, incentives)

7. 03_02.JPG Policy plays central role in how we address environmental problems. How are policies established?

8. Policy Input • Science: information and analysis • Ethics & Economics: criteria to asses extent/nature of problem • Government: intersects with citizens, organizations, private sector to find solutions

9. Example: Tijuana River • Science: • sewage produces pathogens/hypoxia • Ethics/Economics: • Beach closures, • $ losses from recreation/tourism • Those downstream suffer • Government: • Tijuana River Valley Estuary and Beach Cleanup Act • Funds for sewage treatment

10. Downstream

11. 03_04.JPG All 3 branches of government responsible for environmental policy

12. How a Bill Becomes a Law 03_18.JPG

13. 03_05.JPG “4th branch” of government

14. Environmental policy aims to protect environmental quality AND to protect equity in use of resources • Safeguards resources held in common • Prevents “free riders” with law, regulations, or taxing • Addresses external costs borne by those other than buyers/sellers

15. Market failure – • little incentive for businesses or individuals to minimize environmental impact • Viewed as justification for government intervention • Exception – “Ecolabeling “ manufacturers tell how produce was grown, harvested, or manufactured

16. Factors Hindering Economic Policy • Perception: overly restrictive • Costs to developers: permits, monitoring, oversight • Most environmental problems develop gradually

17. Constitutional Amendments: -14th: state cannot deny “equal protection of its laws” – basis for environmental justice movement - 5th: private property “can’t be taken for public use without compensation” – both literally and “regulatory taking” • Federal Laws take precedence over state/local laws

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19. International Policy • United Nations • European Union: can sign treaties on behalf of 27 member nations • NGOs – nongovernmental organizations • Nature Conservancy, Greenpeace, Conservational International, Sierra Club • WTO – World Trade Organization : represents multinational corporations • World Bank – loans to poor countries for major projects including dams

20. Policy process influenced by lobbyist, campaign contributions, revolving door • Policy Approaches • Command and Control: • Most common • Rules and punishment

21. Alternatives to C and C • Subsidies • Government gift of cash/resources to encourage activity seen as beneficial • Controversial – for example the General Mining Law of 1872 allows up to $1 billion of minerals to be extracted from public land without royalties to taxpayers • Green Scissors Report (p. 9) claims that in 2003 $58 billion subsidies provided for 68 activities that harmed the environment

22. Green Taxes – help to internalize external costs • Permit trading • Ex. EU taxes on energy

23. Permit trading = government-created market in permits Emissions trading system = government-issued permits for an acceptable amount of pollution and companies buy, sell, or trade these permits with other polluters Cap-and-trade system = a party that reduces its pollution levels can sell this credit to other parties Pollution is reduced overall, but does increase around polluting plants or “hot spots” Companies have an economic incentive to reduce emissions NGO’s can buy and “retire” permits Market permitting and incentives

24. Environmental Defense Fund – proponents of cap and trade • Program resulted from amendments to Clean Air Act in 1990 • 35% reductions in SO2 by 2005

25. First Wave of Environmental Legislation • Involved management of public lands, 1780s to the late 1800s • Promoted settlement • Extraction of natural resources • Increased prosperity • Relieved crowding in Eastern cities • Displaced millions of Native Americans • People believed that land was infinite and inexhaustible

26. Addressed impacts caused by the first wave Mitigated environmental problems associated with westward expansion National wildlife refuges, parks, and forests Reflected a new understanding that the West’s resources were exhaustible and required legal protection Second Wave of Legislation

27. 3rd wave: Mid to late 20thcentury -responded to pollution -inspiring events: Silent Spring; Cuyahoga River; Santa Barbara oil spill 03_08.JPG

28. Mid-to late-20th century Better off economically But dirtier air, dirtier water, and more waste and toxic chemicals Increased awareness of environmental problems shifted public priorities and policy 1962: Silent Spring (by Rachel Carson) described the negative ecological and health effects of pesticides and industrial chemicals The third wave of U.S. environmental policy

29. Climate in 70’s right for environmental legislation. 03_10a.jpg

30. Three factors converged to allow major advances in environmental policy in the 1960s and 1970s Wide evidence of environmental problems People could visualize policies to deal with problems The political climate was ripe, with a supportive public and leaders who were willing to act In recent years, the political climate has changed People felt burdened by environmental regulations Attempts have been made to roll back or weaken environmental laws The social context for policy can change

32. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) • 1970 began the modern era of environmental policy • Created the Council on Environmental Quality • Requires an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for any federal action that might impact the environment NEPA forces the government and businesses to evaluate the environmental impacts of a project

33. Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Conducts and evaluates research Monitors environmental quality Sets and enforces standards for pollution levels Assists states in meeting standards and goals Educates the public The EPA shifts environmental policy

34. 03_SSB02-T01.JPG CBA done before environmental law enacted.