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4. Answers: 1. A group has the following traits: interdependence, shared goals, and communication.  2. Each member will be affected by the actions of the other members.  3. They help you do things (task functions) and they fulfill emotional needs (social functions).  4. It is possible that a group is held together by an agreement on standards of behavior, a share commitment, as well as shared ideas and goals. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers.

5. Reader’s Guide Main Idea • A group–a collection of people who interact, share common goals, and influence how members think and act–is unified by the attitudes and standards members share and by their commitment to them.  Objectives • Define and explain different types of groups.  • Describe the interactive patterns within groups. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1 begins on page 545 of your textbook.

6. Reader’s Guide (cont.) Vocabulary • group  • task functions  • social functions  • norms  • ideology  • social facilitation  • social inhibition  • group polarization  • groupthink  • sociogram Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring Psychology. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1 begins on page 545 of your textbook.

7. What Are Groups? • A group is a collection of people who interact, share common goals, and influence how members think and act. • In general, the features that distinguish a group from an aggregate (a nongroup) are interdependence, shared goals, and communication. group a collection of people who have shared goals, a degree of interdependence, and some amount of communication Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

8. What Are Groups? (cont.) • People who congregate but do not interact are not considered a group but rather an aggregate. • Interaction is the key factor in forming a group.  • Several people who interact form a group. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

9. Interdependence • To be classified as a group, a collection of people must demonstrate interdependence. • Interdependence occurs when any action by one member will affect or influence the other members.  • In small groups, members usually have a direct influence on one another: one member communicates directly with another.  • In larger groups, the influence may be indirect. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

10. Interdependence (cont.) • Communication is crucial to the functions of a group. • In some cases, the communication is directed outward as a declaration of group membership.  • In other instances, the communication is internal, intended primarily for group members to announce group activities.  • Direct communication aids members’ feelings of belonging. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

11. Shared Goals • Group members become interdependent because they share common goals.  • Groups are usually created to perform tasks or to organize activities that no individual could handle alone. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

12. Shared Goals (cont.) • The purposes groups serve are of two general kinds:  • task functions • social functions • In most groups, task and social functions are combined naturally and cannot be separated easily, although one dominates in any given group. task functions activities directed toward getting a job done social functions responses directed toward satisfying the emotional needs of members Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

13. How Groups Are Held Together • The factors that work to hold groups together–that increase the group’s cohesiveness–include: • the attitudes and standards they share  • their commitment to them

14. Norms • Unwritten rules that govern the behavior and attitudes of group members are called norms.  • They include rules–shared beliefs about the correct way to behave and what to believe. norms shared standards of behavior accepted by and expected from group members Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

15. Norms (cont.) • These rules may be more like tendencies or habits. • Group members are expected to act in accordance with group norms and are punished in some way if they do not.  • If the norm is very important to the group, a member who violates it may endure a more severe social reaction or may be excluded from the group. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

16. Ideology • For a group to be cohesive, members must share the same values. • In some cases, people are drawn together because they discover they have common ideas, attitudes, and goals–that is, a common ideology. ideology the set of principles, attitudes, and defined objectives for which a group stands Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

17. Ideology (cont.) • Some people are attracted to a group because its ideology provides them with a new set of goals and means for achieving them.  • Leaders, heroes and heroines, rallies, books and pamphlets, slogans, and symbols all help popularize an ideology, win converts, and create feelings of solidarity among group members. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

18. Commitment • One factor that increases individual commitment is the requirement of personal sacrifice.  • If a person is willing to pay money, endure hardship, or undergo humiliation to join a group, he or she is likely to continue with it.  • Cohesiveness will be high if members are committed to their group.  • Another factor that strengthens group commitment is participation. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

19. Commitment (cont.) • The processes that hold a group together must work both ways.  • The individual must be responsive to the norms of the group, subscribe to its ideology, and be prepared to make sacrifices to be part of it.  • The group must also respond to the needs of its members.  • It cannot achieve cohesiveness if its norms are unenforceable, if its ideology is inconsistent with the beliefs of its members, or if the rewards it offers do not outweigh the sacrifices it requires. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

20. Types of Groups • Groups can be differentiated by in-groups and out-groups and primary and secondary groups. • When a group’s members identify with their group, they are referred to as the in-group.  • The out-group includes everyone who is not a member of the in-group.  • A primary group is a group of people who interact daily face-to-face.  • A secondary group is a larger group of people with whom you might have more impersonal relationships. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

21. Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition • Social facilitation refers to the tendency to perform better in the presence of a group.  • At times, however, you may perform poorly in front of crowds.  • This is an example of social inhibition. social facilitation an increase in performance in front of a crowd social inhibition a decrease in performance in front of a crowd Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

22. Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition (cont.) • Social facilitation and social inhibition may occur because the presence of a crowd increases one’s drive or arousal. • Psychologist Robert Zajonc (1965) noticed that social facilitation seemed to occur when participants performed simple or well-learned tasks.  • Social inhibition occurred when participants performed more complex tasks or tasks that involved unfamiliar factors to the participants. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

23. Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition (cont.) • The effect of a crowd on your behavior may also be a reflection of your concern about being evaluated.

24. Interactions Within Groups • Providing an individual with values and a sense of identity is only one aspect of the group’s meaning to him or her.  • The particular role he or she plays in the group’s activities is also important.  • The study of the roles various members play in the group and how these roles are interrelated is the study of group structure. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

25. Interactions Within Groups (cont.) • There are many aspects to group structure:  • the personal relationships between individual members, such as liking relationships and trusting relationships  • the rank of each member on a particular dimension, such as power, popularity, status, or amount of resources  • the roles various members play Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

26. Interactions Within Groups (cont.) • A role is behavior expected of an individual because of his or her membership in a particular group. • Each of us has multiple roles that shift as we merge with different groups.  • Occasionally, we may find ourselves in role conflict, such as if you switch schools and your old school plays your new school in football. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

27. Decision Making • Most groups must make decisions. • Group polarization and groupthink are two processes of group decision making. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

28. Decision Making (cont.)Group Polarization • According to group polarization, the majority’s point of view is reinforced through group discussion.  • If opinions of a group are equally split on an issue before a discussion, though, the group discussion usually results in compromise. group polarization theory that group discussion reinforces the majority’s point of view and shifts group members’ opinions to a more extreme position Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

29. Group Polarization Figure 1-1

30. Decision Making (cont.)Groupthink • When groups emphasize sticking together and fail to adequately appraise alternative courses of action, they are guilty of groupthink.  • Group members may refrain from criticizing one another, and they may not discuss opposing viewpoints or critically evaluate the situation. groupthink poor group decision making that occurs as a result of a group emphasizing unity over critical thinking Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

31. Decision Making (cont.)How to Improve Group Decision Making • Leaders should avoid strongly advocating their own views and, instead, encourage group discussion. • During discussion, group members should hear all viewpoints and challenge one another’s views.  • Also, group members should focus on the task–the issue to be discussed or the problem to be resolved. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

32. Decision Making (cont.)How to Improve Group Decision Making • Group members should not focus on group unity when making decisions.  • They should focus on keeping the lines of communication open and gathering enough information to make an unbiased decision. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

33. Communication Patterns • When studying groups, social psychologists use a technique called the sociogram to analyze group structure.  • Sociograms can help psychologists predict how that individual is likely to communicate with other group members. sociogram a diagram that represents relationships within a group, especially likes and dislikes of members for other members Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

34. Communication Patterns (cont.) • Another way to discover the structure of a group is to examine the communication patterns in the group–who says what to whom and how often. • A centralized organization seems more useful for task-oriented groups, whereas a decentralized network is more useful in socially oriented groups. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

35. Sociograms Figure 1-2

36. Leadership • All groups, whether made up of students, workers, Girl Scouts, or politicians, have leaders.  • A leader embodies the norms and ideals of the group and represents the group to outsiders.  • Within the group, a leader initiates action, gives orders, makes decisions, and settles disputes. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

37. Leadership (cont.) • Most of us think of leadership as a personality trait. • One psychologist (Stogdill, 1974) identified leadership as being an aspect of personality–the ability to get people to comply.  • Other researchers (Blake & Mouton, 1985) argue that leaders are concerned to some degree with both output (that is, the task) and the welfare of the people. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

38. Leadership (cont.) • Another way to think of leadership is as the end product of the reinforcements of the group being led (Berry & Houston, 1993).  • In this way, leadership is simply the center or focus of group action, an instrument for achieving the group’s goal or a result of group interaction (Stogdill, 1974).  • Different circumstances call for different kinds of leaders. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

39. Leadership (cont.) • One kind of leadership is called transformational leadership. • This leadership produces large-scale organizational change by changing the goals of group members and deepening their commitment.  • Transformational leaders are charismatic, they provide individualized attention to group members, and they are able to enthuse and intellectually stimulate group members. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

40. Leavitt’s Communication Network System

41. Leadership (cont.)Leadership Styles • The three leadership styles are authoritarian, laissez-faire, and democratic. • An authoritarian leader makes all the decisions and assigns tasks to group members.  • A laissez-faire leader is only minimally involved in a group’s decision making.  • A democratic leader encourages group members to come to decisions through consensus. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

42. Section Assessment Review the VocabularyExplain how groups organized for task functions differ from those organized for social functions. Task function groups exist to get the job done. Social function groups exist to fulfill the emotional needs of members. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

43. Section Assessment (cont.) Visualize the Main IdeaUsing a graphic organizer similar to the one found on page 554 of your textbook, identify and describe three styles of leadership. Authoritarian leaders make all the decisions and assign tasks. Laissez-faire leaders are minimally involved and let the group make its own decisions. Democratic leaders encourage groups to make decisions through consensus. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

44. Section Assessment (cont.) Recall InformationWhat is the difference between an in-group and an out-group. Give an example of each group. In-group members identify with their group. All non-members of the group are the out-group. An example is an athletic team that considers all people who are not starters on the team as the out-group. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

45. Section Assessment (cont.) Think CriticallyWhen might a group benefit from a laissez-faire style of leadership? When might a group benefit from authoritarian leadership? Answers will vary. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

46. Section Assessment (cont.) What kind of interaction occurs with each model?  Explain why the Circle network is slower but more satisfying than the Wheel network for solving tasks. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

47. Cultural Connections 1.1 The United States is a country made of a wide variety of ethnic groups, most of whom came as immigrants. Using 1990 census data, Gregory Rodriguez of Pepperdine University studied efforts that recent immigrants made to fit into the norms of American life. He examined several areas of commitment to norms including acquiring citizenship, learning English, and buying a home. Continued on next slide.

48. Cultural Connections 1.2 He found that 75 percent of the immigrants who had been in America for at least 40 years had become citizens. The same percentage had learned English within 10 years of coming to the United States. In addition, within 20 years of coming to this country, more than 60 percent owned their own home. His conclusion is that the majority of immigrants accept the cultural norms of America.

49. Psychology Update 1.1 Control Groups When conducting experiments, researchers use an experimental group and a control group. Research on social facilitation usually uses people performing tasks alone as the control group. In a 1998 study, psychologists demonstrated that people who are assigned some task to perform alone will infer that they are being monitored. Since they assume they are being monitored, they should not be used as a control group to test the theory that people perform better in the presence of a group.

50. Looking at the Issues 1.1.1 Online Communities • Online communities are a new type of group that allows members who share a common goal or interest to meet on the Internet. • Like many groups, online communities face the challenge of membership commitment. • These communities often have a core of supporters and many members who are rarely, if ever, involved in the group. • Online communities never meet face-to-face, and they can request membership participation but can do little if members choose not to participate. Continued on next slide. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.