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Chapter Two

Chapter Two. Ancient Political Theory. LEARNING OBJECTIVES. Define normative theory . Discuss the implications of normative theory in debating governmental alternatives. Identify and define the significance of Socrates. Describe the methods of Socrates.

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Chapter Two

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  1. Chapter Two Ancient Political Theory

  2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Define normative theory. Discuss the implications of normative theory in debating governmental alternatives. • Identify and define the significance of Socrates. Describe the methods of Socrates. • Describe Aristotle’s view of government? Identify the various forms of democracy and Aristotle’s views of these forms.

  3. LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Identify and describe the ways Plato and Aristotle influence the American system of government. • Discuss the Ancients’ view of democracy and republics. • Identify and describe the philosophical camps of the Theory of Becoming and the Theory of Being.

  4. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 1. Why did Socrates accept his death sentence rather than flee his jail cell? 2. How did Plato make a connection between the Republic and the human soul? 3. Why did Plato believe democracies were inferior political systems? 4. What is the best path toward human happiness according to Plato?

  5. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 5. Why does Aristotle believe that we are by nature political animals? 6. How did Plato and Aristotle differ with respect to their view of the ideal form of government? 7. In what ways did ancient Greek thinking influence and/or challenge early Christian thinking? 8. How did Plato and Aristotle influence the American system of government.

  6. INTRODUCTION • Ancient Greece is considered the cradle of civilization. • Theoretical discussion on politics was started by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. • These three laid the theoretical foundation from which all other Western political thought launches.

  7. THE IONIANS • The Ionians were the earliest Greek philosophers who believed in using rationality rather than mythology to understand the universe. • During this era, two rival and competing movements organized around the question: Does the material world exist in a perpetual state of random change or is their an enduring life force guiding our universe? • The Greeks identified these camps as the theory of becoming and the theory of being.

  8. THE IONIANS • Theory of Becoming • Belief that the universe is constantly changing in a random and arbitrary way • Postulates that there is no preexisting plan or sacred objective to guide the material world • The world came into being as a result of accidental collisions due to chance.

  9. THE IONIANS • Theory of Being • Belief that there is a permanent design that preexisted the ever-changing material world • The permanent design or truth in the universe exists beyond the appearances of the material world that is visible to the physical senses.

  10. THE IONIANS • Theory of Being (Cont’d) • Pythagoras believed that teaching mathematics instilled into the human soul the same underlying principles of the world. • Pythagoras’ emphasis on mathematics reflects the Greek tradition of rationality.

  11. THE SOPHISTS • Influenced Greek culture around the time that the Greeks defeated the Persians in 448 B.C. • Changed the emphasis of Greek philosophy from the universe to the individual. • Famous for teaching rhetoric and public debate • Were skeptical that the ultimate realities of the universe could be known by humans. • Skeptics: Philosophers who generally agree that nothing can be known with absolute certainty.

  12. THE SOPHISTS • “Man is the measure of all things, of the reality of those which are, and the reality of those which are not.” —Protagoras

  13. SOCRATES • Greek philosopher who introduced the inductive method to teach students. • Believed that agreed definitions to words were essential to adopt any universal principals • Was the first to advocate that virtue or excellence was required for ethical human behavior

  14. SOCRATES • Unlike the sophists, was less concerned about the skill of an individual • Used the normative theory approach to politics • Normative Theory: Any theory that examines the way something “should” or “ought” to be rather than focusing on the way something actually “is.” • Define and obtain the “good life”

  15. SOCRATES • True happiness for Socrates meant pursuing the “good life,” which is attained when humans conduct their lives in accordance to ethical principles derived from reason. Life in and of itself is not important for Socrates, it is only the “good life” that matters: I say that it is the greatest good for a man to discuss virtue every day and those other things about which you hear me conversing and testing myself and others, for the unexamined life is not worth living for man.

  16. SOCRATES • He engaged in an early form of civil disobedienceby defying a court order to stop teaching because he believed his teaching was just and ethical. • Civil Disobedience: The refusal to obey governmental demands or commands especially as a nonviolent and usually collective means of forcing concessions from the government.

  17. SOCRATES • Theory and Practice Civil Disobedience After Socrates: Thoreau (1817–1862), Gandhi (1869–1948), and King (1929–1968) • Can you think of other historical figures who engaged in a form of civil disobedience? Have you ever engaged in civil disobedience?

  18. PLATO • Plato was a student of Socrates who introduced Socrates’ teachings through the method of the dialogue. • He fought in the Peloponnesian War and became disillusioned. • Peloponnesian War: The war between Athens and Sparta from 431–404 BCE. Sparta, with the assistance of Persia (now Iran), built a massive fleet that destroyed the Athenian navy at Aegospotami in 405 BCE. The war destroyed Athens.

  19. PLATO

  20. PLATO

  21. PLATO • The Republic • In The Republic, he argued that the highest form of happiness is achieved by pursuing justice, not self-interest. • The polis (state) comes into existence since humanity cannot function efficiently alone.

  22. PLATO • Happiness in the Republic and the Human Soul • We are by nature social creatures. • The republic is a natural model for human beings to adopt. • Believed the ideal republic and human soul consisted of three parts: • Craftspeople/appetites • auxiliaries/spirit • guardians/rational

  23. PLATO

  24. PLATO • Craftspeople and Appetite • Represents working class and includes farmers, shopkeepers, and merchants. • Their function is to produce economic activity and to ensure social sustenance. • They need to be taught temperance and restraint.

  25. PLATO • Auxiliaries and the Spirit • Primary function is to enforce the laws of the state and defend the state from foreign invasion (i.e., serve as the military). • They are taught courage and temperance. • They are linked with the spirit portion of the human soul.

  26. PLATO • Guardians and the Rational • Represent the ruling class and require intensive training in order to ensure the pursuance of the public good and justice. • Must possess “wisdom, courage, and temperance”. • Require the most sophisticated education.

  27. PLATO • Theory and Practice Wealth of U.S. Members of Congress • Do you believe the personal wealth of a member of Congress impacts his/her legislative behavior in Congress? Why or why not?

  28. PLATO • Theory and Practice The Greek Influence on Early Christian Thought: St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas • In what ways are modern religious teachings similar and/or different from the theories associated with the ancient Greeks?

  29. PLATO • Plato’s Theory of Forms • Plato’s vision of forms reveals his dualistic vision of the universe that distinguishes between: 1. The world of appearances • Things we can see 2. The intelligible world • Things beyond our physical senses

  30. PLATO • Plato’s Theory of Forms (Cont’d) • Most people only see imperfect representations of ideal forms • Only those who see the ideal forms in both worlds achieve the greatest happiness and are fit to rule

  31. PLATO • Allegory of the Cave • Allegory of the Cave underscores the need for philosophical rule by revealing how some forms of judgment (or opinions) are more valuable than others. • Allegory explains: imagining, belief, and knowledge and highlights why Plato believed only those with the highest form of knowledge should rule the republic.

  32. PLATO • Theory and Practice The Republic and American Democracy • Staying in the theoretical realm, would you support a political system that gave “enlightened citizens” two votes and “unenlightened citizens” only one vote if there was an objective way to accurately distinguish between the two? Why or why not?

  33. PLATO • Gradations of Happiness in the Republic and the Human Soul • In The Republic, Plato writes that the ideal philosophical aristocracy will eventually decline, as all things in the world of appearances are in a perpetual state of change and transformation. • Aristocracy: A government in which power is vested in a minority, consisting of those believed to be best qualified.

  34. PLATO • Gradations of Happiness in the Republic and the Human Soul (Cont’d) • The state will initially devolve from a philosophical aristocracy to a republic ruled by warriors, referred to as a timocracy, where society values courage and honor over the higher value of justice. • Timocracy: A government in which the love of honor is the ruling principle.

  35. PLATO • Gradations of Happiness in the Republic and the Human Soul (Cont’d) • The children of the ruling warrior class will then establish an oligarchy as they grow to prefer economic prosperity and private property over the value of courage and honor. • Oligarchy: A government in which a small group exercises control over the masses.

  36. PLATO • Gradations of Happiness in the Republic and the Human Soul (Cont’d) • The republic will then further disintegrate when the spoiled children of the oligarchs continue to value possessions and paltry pleasures, but lack the discipline and work ethic to accumulate them. • This group will demand independence and the freedom to pursue trivial delights. • They will form a democracy that values liberty and freedom over economic prosperity and work ethic.

  37. PLATO • Gradations of Happiness in the Republic and the Human Soul (Cont’d) • Finally, this democratic system of government will eventually collapse into a tyrannical system of government, the lowest form of political order for Plato. • Tyrant: An absolute ruler unrestrained by law or constitution.

  38. PLATO • Gradations of Happiness in the Republic and the Human Soul (Cont’d)

  39. ARISTOTLE • Student of Plato who founded an academy in Athens to teach a full range of academic departments • Much more pragmatic, scientific, and empirical than Plato • Like Plato, believed happiness is achieved when rationality governed appetites and urges

  40. ARISTOTLE In this painting Plato (left) counsels Aristotle, his most prominent student. Plato’s hand pointing to the sky represents his transcendental view of politics, while Aristotle’s hand gesture symbolizes his more pragmatic and empirical approach to politics. It is entitled “School of Athens” and is regarded by many as Italian artist Raphael’s greatest work. Raphael painted “School of Athens” in the Vatican around 1510 as Michelangelo worked on the Sistine Chapel.

  41. Aristotle • The Natural State • Two major works that record Aristotle’s political beliefs are: Politics and Nicomachean Ethics. • Aristotle theorized that three are three distinct forms of human communities: • The family unit • The village • The polis (state)

  42. ARISTOTLE • Theory and Practice The Greeks, the Roman Empire, and the Incorporation of Law into the State • Natural Law: A body of law or a special principle held to be derived from nature and binding upon human society. • Positive Law:A body of law established or recognized by a governmental authority. • Can you think of any existing law that places the well-being of special interests groups over the public good? If so, how would you change this law and how would this change improve our society?

  43. ARISTOTLE • CourseReader ASSIGNMENT Politics, Book 6, by Aristotle • Why are some forms of democracy better than other forms of democracy according to Aristotle? • How has Aristotle’s theory of mixed constitutions influenced the structure of modern democracies?

  44. ARISTOTLE

  45. ARISTOTLE • Aristotle’s Theory of Forms and Happiness • Does not view forms supernaturally, unlike Plato • All living forms have an ideal fate or preexisting purpose within them • Forms progress as they transition biologically from potentiality to actualization

  46. ARISTOTLE • Aristotle’s Theory of Forms and Happiness (Cont’d) • Happiness is found in humans’ ability to reason, which separates them from animals. • Reasoning allows humans to pursue excellence and a just existence through politics.

  47. ARISTOTLE • Theory of Mixed Constitutions

  48. ARISTOTLE • Theory and Practice Does Democracy Require a Strong Middle Class? • How can Aristotle’s theory that a strong middle class is required for a democracy to flourish help to inform American foreign policy decision makers on U.S. policy in Afghanistan?

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