Canada

1. Canada Eva Kuske Marion Aebi Cyril Ryser

2. Definition of Pluralism “A condition or system in which two or more states, groups, principles, etc. coexist”(Concise Oxford English Dictionary, Twelfth ed, Oxford UP, 2011) “In contemporary usage, pluralism can refer to the presence of distinct social and cultural groups within a single polity, sharing a common economic system that makes them interdependent, but enabling them to maintain a greater or lesser degree of autonomy.” (Van den Berghe, 1973, italics added)

3. Schermerhorn‘s notion “Centripetal tendencies refer both to cultural trends such as acceptance of common values, styles of life, etc, as well as structural features like increased participation in a common set of groups, associations, and institutions. To keep the two aspects analytically distinct, it seems tenable to refer to the first as assimilation, and the second as incorporation ... Conversely, centrifugal tendencies among subordinate groups are those that foster separation from the dominant group or from societal bonds in one respect or another. Culturally this most frequently means retention and presentation of the group's distinctive tradition in spheres like language, religion, recreation, etc.” (Schermerhorn, 1970: 81)

4. Theoretical approach to Integration • Consensus Theory: majority – minorityFocus: linguistic or cultural • Conflict Theory: dominant – subordinateFocus: economics or politics in terms of race / ethnicity (Schermerhorn, 1970) • Universal values: Drawn from enlightenment philosopher‘s conception of essential humanity • Core values: normative ideological tradition • Both contradictory and taken for granted only in the western mind-set. • Individual vs communal or group values

5. Conflict Theory Power-conflict Theory “In brief, then, conflict theory is based upon an assumption of opposed interests of groups in a society, rather than an assumption of consensual integration. It therefore 'promotes the search for contradictions and sources of disequilibrium in the system. Conflict is seen as the motor force of social changes.‘” (Murphy, 1979: 85) Sprang from original Marxist ideas: • Group differences • Struggle for scarce resources • Existence of power differentials

6. Issues “From the standpoint of power-conflict theory one can view each ethnic group as being in an embattled position, fighting for its life, its identity, or its prestige, subject to perpetual constraints that threaten its survival, its freedom, or its life chances in a precarious world.” (Schermerhorn, 1970) “Thus the racial or ethnic group with control over the power structure of the state usually attempts to monopolize most of its socializing and enculturating functions. It asserts a form of 'dominant monism‘” (Singleton, 1977)

7. Consensus Theory Structural-functional Theory • Was a post-war movement lead to a merging of economic theory and liberal doctrine • Ethnicity and race irrelevant • Human capital & equality of educational opportunity • Champions individual achievement • Universalistic notions of values • Consensus is achievable  rather assimilationist (Pike, 1981: 4) • This should enable the social and economic mobility of individuals • Fostered by John Porter. In his major work, The Vertical Mosaic: A Study of Class and Power in Canadian Society (1965)

8. Social stratification • Marxist: ethnicity as an obstacle to the development of classes. Eventual demise of class conflict and the emergence of classes. • Weberian: conflict as a permanent feature of society. Ethnicity differences primarily economic. • Power-conflict: Ethnic conflicts and their sources viewed in broader terms “All three theoretical perspectives, however, emphasize that educational qualifications have not resulted in upward social mobility for members of certain racial and ethnic groups.” (Mallea, 1989, 21)

9. Conclusion 5 points why traditional theories of pluralism offer limited aid: • Dialectic between the universal and particular cannot be resolved by an all-encompassing set of principles (Itzkoff, 1969) • Co-existence of autonomous but non-complementary sub-societies which do not share common values cannot be reconciled by value consensus (Watson, 1982: 188) • Theories are inadequate to the political contention and decision-making, thus lack a theory of power in societal structure (Halebsky, 1976) • Ignorance of tension between political democracy and economic inequality (Giroux, 1983a) • Ignorance of the importance of power differentials in structuring a state-aided public education. (Mallea, 1989, 13)

10. References continued • Watson, G. L. 1982, Social Theory and Critical Understanding. Washington: University Press of America. • Halebsky, S. 1967, Mass Society and Political Conflict: Toward a Reconstruction of Theory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. • Giroux, H. A. 1983a, Theories of reproduction and resistance in the new sociology of education: A critical analysis. Harvard Educational Review 53(3), 257 – 293. • Magnet, J. E. 1982, Minority language educational rights. In E. P. Belobalos & E. Gertner, The New Constitution and The Charter of Rights. Toronto: Butterworth. • Couture, J. E. 1979, Secondary Education for Canadian Registered Indians, Past, Present and Future: A Commentary. Ottawa: DepRTMENT OF Indian and Northern Affairs. • Northwest Territories Department of Education, Education Programs and Evaluation Division 1978, Philosophy of Education in the Northwest Territories. Northwest Territories. • Hawkes, D. C. 1985, Aboriginal Self-government: What Does It Mean? Aboriginal Peoples and Constitutional Reform. Kingston: Queen‘s Universit, Institute of Intergovernmental Relations. • Boisvert, D. A. 1985, Forms of Aboriginal Self- Government. (Aboriginal Peoples and Constitutional Reform, Background Paper No. 2). Kingston: Queen‘s University, Institute of Intergovernmental Relations. • Google maps: http://maps.google.ch/ accessed August 8 2013

11. Schooling of aboriginal children • Since 1867 assimilationist approach • First church and then state established residential or boarding schools for natives • Concerted eradication campaign of the aboriginal indigenous language • Yet even today 54% of Indian children commute to provincial and private schools from their homes on the reserves (C.E.A, 1984) Explanation of failure: • Underappreciation of the aboriginal cultural capital • Deficit theory: aboriginal children are perceived as notorious underachievers

12. Call to self-government • The National Indian Brotherhood • Seminal document Indian Control of Indian Education, 1972 • Rejection that British and French cultures should dominate in the public schools • Demand: reinforce cultural identity!

13. Implementation • Tribal Councils which are made up of several Bands to help tranfer educational policy from federal government powers to local schools • Most sophisticated expression of self-government in Northwest Territories • Aboriginal schools rare in urban centres

14. NWT • Pluralist philosophy of education • Google maps: accessed 8 April 2013, 15:22

15. Regional • 95% of Ontario‘s francophones are educated in a separate school system (Magnet, 1982) • Quebec: Anglophones possess their own school boards. Francophone majority. • New Brunswick made by the Official Languages Act (1969) into the only officially bilingual province in Canada.

16. The problem of funding „absolute democratization of Indian Education can only be possible under terms of absolute control of funding; the bottom line to all current transfer-to-local control projects is that the feds still hold the purse strings.“ (Couture, 1979)

17. Official language minority rights • Controversial issuedominant-subordinate relations English/French • Courts have historiclly played a role in determining minority language rights(Regulation 17 in Ontario, July 1912) • The „Quebec Clause“ imposed reasonable limitations on the rights of Anglophones, as argued by the Quebec government: Anglophone parents were prevented from sending their child to an English-language school unless one of them had received his or her primary instruction in English in the province. • Problem: aimed at the individual rights • Supreme court had to intervene: deemed ‚inoperable‘ and ‚inconsitent‘ in July 1984

18. Case studies • Edmonton, Alberta-bilingual English-Ukrainian program -allocation of public funds • Toronto, Ontario-inclusion of heritage languages to better reflect multicultural demography  lobbying-Board of Education initiated a Work group: socio-political approach • -vote passed but counter-movement intiated by teaching organisations  scarce resources • Conflict mediated and implemented

19. Dualism vs Pluralsim Federal policy: „Multiculturalism within a Bilingual Framework“ Problems: • What about indigenous languages – particularly in terms of financing? • How to roll-out policy guidelines to provincial schooling • Dominant-subordinate language groups • Conception of curricula reflects cultural values as conceived at policy level. But cultural values are ever-changing • Language and schooling are not static processes: Contribution to what constitutes authentic Canadian culture • National, provincial and municipal levels are interconnected

20. References • John R. Mallea. 1989, Schooling in a Plural Canada, in MULTILINGUAL MATTERS 23, Series Editor: Derrick Sharp • Van den Berghe, P. 1973, Pluralism. In J.J. Honigmann (ed.), Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology, Chicago: Rand MccNally. • Canada, 1982, The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services. • Canadian Education Assosication (C.E.A.). 1984, Recent Development in Native Education. Toronto. • Schermerhorn, R. A. 1970, Comparative Ethnic Relations: A Framework For Theory and Research. New York: Random House. • Porter J. 1965, The Vertical Mosaic: An Analysis of Social Class and Power in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. • Singleton, J. 1977, Education and ethnicity. Comparative Education Review 21 (2/3), 329-343. • Patel, D. 1980, Dealing with Interracial Conflict: Policy Alternatives. Montreal: Institute for Research on Public Policy. • Murphy , R. 1979, Sociological Theories of Education. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. • Pike, R. M. 1981, Sociological research on higher education in English Canada 1970-1980: A thematic review. The Canadian Journal of Higher Education 11 (2), 1-22. • Itzkoff, S. W. 1969, Cultural Pluralism and American Education. Scranton: International Textbook Company.

21. Francophones and Anglophones in Quebec

23. About Quebec • Canada’slargestprovince(byarea) 1,542,056 km2  37x Switzerland!! • Official language : French • Largestcity: Montréal, 1.649.519 inhabitants(2011) • Capital: Quebec City, 516.622 inhabitants (2011)

24. French in Quebec • 95 % abletospeak French • mothertongueof just below 80% • languagemostusedathomefornearly 82% • Problem: immigrantsare not awareofthefactthat Quebec ispredominantly French-speaking

25. Historyof French in Quebec • aboriginaltribes • Quebec City foundedby French explorer (1608) • partof French colonialempire • 1759, at end of«Seven Years’ War», British defeated French at«Battle ofSainte-Foye» • British ruleuntil«1783 Treaty of Paris»  USA • English-speakingProtestants vs. French-speakingCatholics

26. Historyof French in Quebec • Separation upper / lower Canada (1791) • 1840 «Actof Union»  «Provinceof Canada» • 1867 «British North AmericaAct»  «Dominionof Canada» (Fourprovinces)  Ontario (Upper Canada)  Quebec (Lower Canada)

27. Riseto power of French • Quiet Revolution in 1960s (majortransformationas a resultofmodernisationandsecularisation) • «Québécois» replaced«French Canadian» • 1976 riseto power ofthePartiQuébécois • 1977 passingofCharter ofthe French language (Bill 101)  French commonlanguage in in all domainsofthepublicsphere

28. Maintainingthedominance • 2000 settingupofCommissionofEstates General («LaroseCommission») • Tasks: identify& analyzemainfactorswhichinfluencethesituationandfutureof French in Quebec andmakingrecommendations on improvement • Report in 2001 («Le français, unelanguepourtout le monde»)

29. Anglophones vs. Francophones • Fête de la St.-Jean on 24 June 2009  two Anglophone musicgroupsremoved fromtheprogramm • Polarised Quebec • Illustratescomplexityofrelationship • Francophonessee Anglophones asintruders • Anglophones mightneverfullybelongto Quebec nation

30. Anglophones vs. Francophones • Different attitudestowards «other» language • Generally, Francophonesmoreambivalencetowards Englishthanotherwayaround • LesswithyoungerFrancophones  English usefulfor professional life • Anglophones leaving Quebec due toinsufficient French skills

31. Immigratingto Quebec • «LaroseCommission» viewsFrench asmain form ofidentificationwith Quebec nation • «Integration Action Plan 2004-2007» • Immigrantshavetolearn French in ordertofeelathomethere  havetocommitaffectionto French and Quebec

32. Immigration • Twomotivationsofimmigration: • integrative individual’sdesiretointegrateintothetargetcommunity • Instrumental  functionalattitudetolanguagelearningwitheconomicorsocialgoals

33. Immigration • Improvementof instrumental valueof French  French publiclanguageofadministration, education, workplace, primary & secondaryeducation, etc. + economicreasons • Consequently, integrative motivationgrewaswell (morepeoplespeaking French  needof French tobepartofcommunity)

34. Les enfants de la loi 101 • Children, whogrewupwith Bill 101 havestrongeraffinitiyto French thanparents • Learning languageaschild acquiringtheculture

35. Situation in Montreal • Montreal: 65.7 % Francophones 12.5 % Anglophones 21.8 % otherlanguages • immigrantsdon’tdevelop a feelingofbelongingtothepoliticalcommunitiyof Quebec • Quebec City: 95 % Francophones Trilingualism

36. Situation in Montreal • Advantages of English: statusas global language& languageofneighbouring USA + historicalstatusaslanguageofeconomic andpolitical power in Montreal • Anglophone University, otherinstitutions • Instrumental attitudetowardslearning French

37. Recentdevelopment • Cultural andlinguisticmixingbetween Anglophones andFrancophones  positive forceforunity

38. Sources • Catrin Norrbyand John Hajek, 2011, UniformityandDiverisity in Language Policy, Global Perspectives, in MULTILINGUAL MATTERS, Series Editor: John Edwards, St. Xavier University, Canada • http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2006/11/27/nation-vote.html • http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pages/evenements/21666.html • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec • http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_City • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada

39. Inuits in Canada

40. http://attachments.techguy.org/attachments/206083d1331733306/canadian_inuit_map.gifhttp://attachments.techguy.org/attachments/206083d1331733306/canadian_inuit_map.gif

41. Language • Official language: Inuktitut, includes different dialectsfrom different regions. • Diglossia: Conflictbetweentwolanguages in unequalcontexts. (Dorais, 1989) • English isthelanguageofthelaw, administrationandhealth.

42. Inuktitut • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iPGAbctSHuY

43. Development in thepast 50 years • 1960s: Civil rights movement • 1970s: Inuit leaders claim their rights and territories. • 1972: Telecommunication in the North • Southern style schools, social health service, legal systems • Self government • A hunting economybecomes a mixedeconomy. (Stenbaek, 1987)

44. Language Development • Inuktitut is now taught in schools. • Bilingualism is now considered an advantage. • Interview with Edna MacLean: “Oh my goodness, you had your ears pulled! […] And for speaking Inupiaq even during recess there would be teachers monitoring, standing outside listening to see whether we were speaking Inupiaq or not. It was terrible, some children who did not know English had their ears pulled constantly.” (Stenbaek, p.306)

45. Negative Consequences • Desperation • Alcoholism and drug abuse • Domestic violence • Comparison to the South • Peter FrederikRosing: “30 years does not make a child of nature into a New Yorker” • Exception: Inuit women seem to cope better (Stenbaek, 1987)

46. Discussion • J.J. Simard: “The insistence on the survival of traditional language and culture stems from an anthropological bias that has no place in the real world.” (Dorais, 1989) • Mary Simon: “The myth of the grand old Inuk bravely facing the elements alone in an igloo on a storm-tossed ice floe is a wonderfully romantic [...] myth, but it is just that – an old myth.” (Stenbaek, 1987)

47. References • Stenbaek, Marianne. 1987. Forty Years of Cultural Change among the Inuit in Alaska, Canada and Greenland: Some Reflections. Arctic. Vol. 40. No. 4. (pp. 300-309) Accessed 20.3.2013 • Dorais, Louis-Jacques. 1989. Bilingualism and Diglossia in the Canadian Eastern Arctic. Arcitic. Vol. 42. No. 3. pp. 199-207. Accessed: 20.3.2013 • Hajek, John. Norrby, Catrin (ed.). 2011. Part 1: Language Policy at the Official Level. Uniformity and Diversity in Language Policy. Bristol, Buffalo, Toronto. Multilingual Matters. pp. 6-20. • http://attachments.techguy.org/attachments/206083d1331733306/canadian_inuit_map.gif • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iPGAbctSHuY