Ecologism

1. Ecologism

2. Anthropocentrism- human centred political ideologies which are questioned by ecologists as nature is interconnected. • Shallow ecologism- aims to harness lessons of ecology for human ends. • Deep ecologism- rejects the idea that humans are amore important species

3. Origins… • Pre 1970s environmentalism meant concern about natural environment and actions to reduce its degradation it was policy and not ideology • Paganism- Mother earth, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism… • A reaction against industrialisation but only happens in countries where there has been rapid industrialisation- Germany Back to Nature and later Blood and Soil movement • 1960s provoked by further industrialisation and urbanisation. Rachel Carson in The Silent Spring (1962) criticised damage done to wildlife by human world- pesticides and agri chemicals. • Emergence of a new generation of activist pressure groups- Greenpeace, FOE, animal liberation and eco warriors. These together with established larger groups such as WWF Nature, establishment of Green Party help to give environmental movement greater profile esp in advanced industrial states. • It became a global issue with UN conference on Human Environment at Stockholm in 1972- first attempt at international framework for coordinated approach to environmental problems. Idea of sustainable development came in 1987 in a report by UNO World Commission on the Environment and Development.

4. Core themes

5. Return to Nature • Unlike other ideologies it does not place humans at the centre, it aims at a radical transformation of human consciousness and moral compass… • It [Ecologism] maintains that the basic fact which should be given pride of place is that we are natural creatures. That is we are a species of animal inhabiting a rich and complex biological context. This fact has either been ignored or consciously downplayed by other political ideologies. Our possession of rationality and the intensity and elaboration of our cultural activities in particular have been held to make us special, different in some sense set apart from the rest of nature. Ecologism insists this is not so. We are a species of animal with a highly distinctive set of capacities, but once we begin to view ourselves in the appropriate context, on the basis of our awareness of the rest of the natural world, we can see important kinds of continuity between ourselves and that world… • Facing this fact directly ought to make us more concerned than we have been hitherto about how that world is faring. We ought to, to become immediately more sensitive to the moral claims which our fellow creatures have upon us. We ought to become aware of how our well-being and fate are intertwined with those of other living beings with which recent Darwinian biology and ancient tribal lore claim we share a common descent.

6. Ecology • Developing from Biology, a growing realisation that life is sustained by self regulating natural systems (ecosystems). Ecosystems are mutually dependent on one another- The largest of which is the global ecosystem or ecosphere or biosphere a lake is such an ecosystem but fed by tributaries, warmth and energy provided by the sun and it provides water and food for life on its shores. • Ecologists argue that humanity’s pursuit of material wealth endangers the environment via population growth, exploitation irreplaceable fossil fuels, eradication rain forests, pollution lakes, rivers and seas, chemical and hormonal additives to food, threat to biodiversity- RSPB report 2012 warns of threat to species in the UK dependent territories where 85% of UK endangered species live. • Shallow Ecology- learn lessons from ecologism for human benefit a form of enlightened anthropocentrism… • Deep Ecology- man is not the centre, purpose is for human life to help sustain nature not vice versa

7. Holism • Holism as an idea was developed by Jan Smuts (South African statesman) in 1926. The whole is made up of the many parts. The natural world can only be understood as a whole. He criticises science for reductionism- the idea that everything can be reduced to separate parts. Baxter An Introduction to Ecologism- the problem with atomism is that it presents a picture of the human and non human world which fails to encompass the interconnectedness of things. In particular, it encourages human beings to view themselves as in some important way disconnected from the natural world around them…our existence and flourishing cannot be separated conceptually or morally from the existence and flourishing of the rest of the universe… • Physicists such as Niels Bohn (1885-1952) and Verner Heisenberg (1901-1976) the physical world cannot be understood as a collection individual molecules, atoms, particles but a network of reciprocal interaction. • In the Tao of Physics (1955) Fritjof Capra drew parallels between modern physics and eastern mysticism- Hinduism Taoism, Buddhism preached the oneness of things. Primitive religions drew no distinctions between different forms of life and even portrayed the earth as a living entity- mother earth. James Lovelock developed the idea that the planet was alive in the Gaia Theory . The earth’s biosphere exhibited self regulating behaviour characteristic of other forms of life. Humans must therefore respect the health of the planet and seek to conserve its beauty and resources. • Unlikehumanist ecologists (Green Movement) which focus on what needs to be changed for the sake of human survival, Gaia places as central the health of the planet. Lovelock argued that those species which prosper are those which help the planet to regulate its existence whereas those which run counter to this are threatened with extinction.

8. Sustainability • Ecologists criticise mainstream parties- Grey Parties for their belief in unlimited possibilities for material growth and prosperity. This is countered in Spaceship earth by Kenneth Boulding (1966) with its focus on exhaustible wealth. There was a tendency for closed systems (spaceship earth) towards entropy - decay and disintegration. E S Schumacher Small is Beautiful (1973) warned of the allowance of energy demands to soar ecologists say that fuel resources are unlikely to last until the end of the present century. He argued that the mistake of humans was to regard exhaustible resources such as fossil fuels as income resources which can be topped up each week. • Entropy is inevitable but it can be slowed only if humans recognise they are one element in a complex biosphere and that only a healthy biosphere can sustain life. Ecologists draw a distinction between exhaustible resources CAPITAL as opposed to renewable INCOME or NATURAL RESOURCES. This inevitably sets limits to ambitions. A sustainable energy policy requires dramatic cuts in use of fossil fuels and search for alternatives which are sustainable- income rather than capital resources such as fossil fuels. • Schumacher is a Buddhist economist seeing people not obsessed with wealth but as utility maximisers. Production is not just about generation of goods and services but in the process of which personal growth is developed which overcomes egocentredness by forging social bonds and encouraging of collaboration. • Modern ecologists Concern with reconcile ecology with economic growth- weak sustainability- get rich slower • Social ecology/Deep ecology Ecological sustainability linked to radical social change. Eco anarchists believe human communities should be based on ecological principles. The ecological crisis is linked to materialism and consumerism and eco anarchists aim to replace industrialisation with small rural communities

9. Environmental ethics • Futurity- actions of the present should be judged as to their impact on future generations (ecological stewardship). This has been criticised on the grounds that in the view of conventional moral thinkers all rights involve reciprocal obligations. Also present generation may be making sacrifices for generations which may be much better off or the sacrifices may be inadequate. • As an alternative to environmental ethics is moral standards based on belief that animals are non human persons. Which as sentient beings capable of suffering deserve same consideration. This is a rejection of specieism the idea of a gradation of species. Singer- the moral imperative is to avoid suffering to more developed, self aware species such as the great apes Singer does not apply the moral imperative to the human foetus or mentally impaired. Such a view, according to Baxter Ecologism an Introduction some life forms have greater wonderfulness and thus intrinsic value and moral considerability than others…

10. From having to being (state of mind?) • Ecologists are critical of materialism the link between material consumption and pleasure. Materialism tends to undermine rather than enhance psychological and emotional well being- consumerism does not satisfy desires but creates new ones creating cultural basis for environmental degradation. • Abraham Maslow (1908-70) developed hierarchy of needs placing self esteem and actualisation above material needs. Conditions of material scarcity breed egotistical and acquisitive values whereas in conditions of widespread prosperity individuals are more concerned with quality of life such as morality, political justice, personal fulfilment. • Indeed, the spread of liberal values in the developed world such as the concepts of human rights, autonomy and self development creates a unitary moral vocabulary within which to spread the moral ideas of ecologism…Ecologism has sprung from cultures in which the moral ideas of liberalism have been dominant…an acceptance of liberal moral notions with respect to human beings is a facilitating step towards the acceptance of ecologism as moral theory (Baxter an Introduction to Ecologism). • Quality of life thinking divorces the connection between happiness and material acquisition ( heavy influence on eco anarchists, feminists and deep ecology) a state of mind which seeks to transcend the self. People are linked to all living things. Warwick Fox (1990) talks of transpersonal ecology all living things are part of a single unfolding reality. Naess argued that self realisation is attained through an identification with others. In this it is shaped by eastern religions such as Buddhism which focusing on the no self holds that the ego is a myth/delusion and enlightenment recognises the oneness of life.

11. On ideology • Deep ecologism Dismisses traditional ideologies as expressions of anthropocentrism because even the term ideology is associated with human centred thinking. • Shallow ecology Established political traditions are capable accommodating a positive view of non human nature.

12. Modernist Ecology • Promotion of environmentally sound policies but do not reject capitalism • Liberalism- ecologists critical of liberalism for focus on individual (anthropocentric) and classical liberalism for equating happiness with material consumption. Modern liberalism however is a form of enlightened anthropocentrism encouraging higher interests such as appreciation natural world over lower pleasures such as consumption. This can be found in the writings of J S Mill who was critical of rampant industrialisation in defence of a stationary population and static economic growth, arguing that appreciation of nature was vital to human fulfilment. • Eco Conservatism nostalgic about pre industrial society, rural society links with natural and historical heritage. Green capitalism relies on capitalist market to deliver ecologically sustainable outcomes as the market is responsive to consumer choice or consumer sovereignty (wise consumer???). Some green capitalists favour unregulated competition, presumably placing faith in consumers to make ecologically friendly spending/consumption choices whereas most support a managed capitalism as environmental degradation can only be dealt effectively by government

13. Social Ecology • The US anarchist Murray Bookden (1921-2001) linked the environmental crisis to the breakdown of the organic fabric of society. It can be used to describe a range of ideas which recognise the link between environmental degradation and existing social structure

14. Eco socialism • Draws on pastoral socialism e.g. German Greens and also ideas of William Morris- small scale craft communities living close to nature. • Capitalism is seen as the cause of the environmental crisis as the search for profit has despoiled the natural world and green capitalism is a contradiction in terms as it breeds materialism and consumerism. The market economy commodifies nature. If capitalism is the enemy of the environment then the solution is to abolish capitalism. • Main stream socialist parties slow to adopt green issues because electoral support depends on promise of growth and because as a pro production political creed it preaches exploitation of the wealth of the planet for human need. • Eco socialists in contrast argue that socialism is naturally ecological. If wealth is common it can be used in the interests of all and for the long term interests of humanity. However consider the environmentally disastrous consequences of the state socialist regimes of the communist states.

15. Eco anarchism • Anarchists have drawn a clear link between anarchism and ecology. A stateless society is natural reliant on mutual respect and social solidarity mirroring the balance which develops naturally within nature in the form of ecosystems. ( what C19 Kropotkin Bookchin linked anarchist community to an ecosystem) • A decentralised society in the form of villages and communes, self sufficient and close to nature, economically diverse a more intelligent and loving use of the environment upon which each community depends. • A rejection of the state via which collective action can be organised to solve environmental crisis. Here eco anarchists depart from the Green movement which fear a weakened or absence of the state will create a vacuum giving free rein to those forces which risk environmental destruction.

16. Eco feminism • Ecological destruction originates in patriarchy. Men not humankind is the threat… • From above emerges following two trends • Androgynous/sexless view- Patriarchy has divorced men from private world of nurturing, home making, personal relationships and sexual division labour inclines men to subordinate women and nature- in this sense eco feminism is a form of social ecology • Essentialism there are fundamental and in eradicable gender differences. Mary Daly in Gyn/Ecology (1979) The notion of an intrinsic link between women and nature links back to pre Christian religions- biological basis for women’s closeness to nature seen in bearing/suckling children. Traditional female values include reciprocity, cooperation, nurturing which have a soft or ecological character. Idea that nature is an exploitable resource or to be subdued is alien to woman. The overthrow of patriarchy allows a new relationship between human society and the natural world- eco feminism a firm commitment to ecocentrism (deep ecology) • Whereas there is natural bond women and nature men are creatures of culture, their world is man made product of human ingenuity- intellect over intuition, materialism over spirituality, mechanical relationships over holistic ones. Patriarchy establishes the supremacy of culture over nature- ecological destruction and gender inequality interlinked. • Ecologsim emphasises the ways in which the moral considerability of the non-humans has been systematically ignored as a result of the human domination of the planet. Some eco feminists have challenged this parallel, arguing that it is male domination which underlies both the subordination of females and the domination of the non-human (Baxter An Introduction to Ecologism)

17. Deep ecology • Deep ecology also known as ecocentrism, ecosophy, ecophilosophy coined 1973 by Arne Naess (Norwegian philosopher 1912-2008)- the earth does not belong to human beings. His philosophy was known as Ecosophy T • Ecology and anthropocentrism are irreconcilable. • Biocentric equality- all organisms and entities in biosphere are equal moral worth. • All species a right to live and bloom- biodiversity linked to health and stability. • Deep ecology is concerned with metaphysics ( philosophy which is concerned with explaining fundamental nature of existence/being. Deep ecology calls for a radical change in consciousness, the adoption of ecological consciousness or cosmological consciousness. At heart there is a call for an inter-subjective model of selfhood where there is no distinction made between the self and the other- a collapsing of the distinction between humankind and nature. • For deep ecologists environmental crisis not linked to any political, social, economic system but in a mechanistic world view which has dominated western societies since C17 where nature is thought as inert and valueless in itself, a resource for human needs. There needs to be a paradigm change and deep ecologists look to modern physics, eastern mysticism, primitive religion because each offers a radical vision of holism- Deep ecologists place maintenance of ecological balance over achievement human ends.

18. Deep ecologism concerned with following… • Wilderness preservation- keeping things as they are, protecting from human encroachment. The natural world unspoilt by human intervention is a repository wisdom and morality. • Population control A substantial decrease in human popualtion only way o ensure flourishing non human life- some reject aid to devloping world , calling for lower birth rates even stop immigration to devloped world. • Simple living- Naess humans only right to reduce richness and diversity nature to satisfy vital needs. Emphasis is on being not having or as Naess put it walking lighter on the earth . Quality of life over quantity possessions linked to post material model of self actualisation or inner fulfilment by transcending egoism and materialism or inwardly rich but outwardly poor. • Bioregionalism Reconfigure human society with naturally defined regions. Each being an ecosystem. A general support for self reliant, self supporting autonomous communities clearly at odds with national or state borders.

19. How has deep ecologism been criticised • The philosophical and ethical debates deep ecology has stimulated has outweighed its practical importance within the green movement. • Humanist ecologists reject the claim their views are a shallow version of deep ecology and that deep ecology is flawed philosophically and morally- philosophical flaw is the belief that anthropocentrism and ecology are exclusive. • Moral flaws are based on criticism of idea of intrinsic value of nature. Environmental ethics cannot be non anthropocentric because morality is human construct- good and bad only apply any meaning when applied to humans. • Social ecologists such as Murray Bookchin attack deep ecology as socially conservative ignoring the radical social change necessary for any inner revolution but also because it turns its back on rationalist thought by embracing mysticism thereby becoming vulgar Californian spiritualism or Eco-la-la