PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES

1. PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES

2. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF GOODS • Characteristics of Goods • Useful to group various types of goods according to two characteristics • 1. Excludability • Is the good excludable? • Can people be prevented from using the good? • The property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using it

3. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF GOODS • Characteristics of Goods • 2. Rivalry • Is the good rival? • Does one person’s use of the good diminish another person’s ability to use it? • The property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using it. • Also called non-depletable • Consumption by one individual does not affect supply available for other individuals • Non-rivalry implies that marginal social cost of supply the good to an additional individual is zero

4. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF GOODS • Characteristics of Goods • Goods differ by the amount of these two characteristics and can be grouped accordingly into four categories • 1. Private goods • 2. Public goods • 3. Common goods • 4. Collective goods

5. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF GOODS • Four Types of Goods Rival? Low High Private Goods Collective Good High Excludable? Public Goods Common Goods Low

6. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF GOODS • Pure and Impure Goods • Distinguish goods by degree of excludability and rivalry • Goods display varying degrees • Leads to distinction of pure and impure

7. PRIVATE GOODS • Private goods are goods that are both excludable and rival • An ice-cream cone is excludable because it is possible to prevent someone from eating it and it is rival because if one person eats it another person cannot eat the same cone • Most goods in economy are private • Analysis of supply and demand and efficiency of markets implicitly assumed that goods were both excludable and rival – private goods

8. PUBLIC GOODS • Public goods are goods that are neither excludable nor rival • People cannot be prevented (nonexcludable) from using a public good and one person’s use of a public good does not reduce another person’s ability to use it (nonrivalrous) • Allows for simultaneous consumption

9. PUBLIC GOODS • Pure public goods • Local public goods • In some circumstances, a public good has a spatial dimension • Provides benefits only to those living in a particular geographic region • Examples: trafic lights, parks, ports, marine reserves

10. PUBLIC GOODS • Club goods • Sometimes possible to divide population into two or more consumption groups or clubs • Each club consumes its own public good • Examples: • Swimming pools, golf courses,movie houses

11. PUBLIC GOODS • Examples of Public Goods • Ecosystem • Provide public services given their ability to underpin and buffer the market economy against external shocks of production and consumption • Wetlands • Act as local public good by buffering economy from natural and man-made shocks by providing water purification and habitat services

12. PUBLIC GOODS • Examples of Public Goods • Oceans • Act as local public good by providing public services to local economy, given its capacity to provide recreational services, habitat services, accepting terrestrial water flows, accepting wastes, etc. • Also provide public goods to global economy, given non-rival benefits of biodiversity, ecosystem linkages, carbon sequestration, provision of oxygen

13. COMMON GOODS • Common goods are goods that are rival but not excludable • Fish in the ocean are rivalrous, because when person catches the fish, there are fewer fish for the next person to catch. • Fish in the ocean are not excludable, because it is difficult to stop fishers from taking fish out of the ocean

14. COLLECTIVE GOODS • Collective goods are goods that are nonrival but excludable • Sometimes provided by government, sometimes by private goods • Pay-per-view cable television • Often are natural monopolies

15. PUBLIC AND COMMON GOODS AND EXTERNALITIES • Public goods and common goods are both not excludable, and therefore available to everyone free of charge • Both are closely related to externalities • For both, externalities arise because something of value has no price attached to it • If one person provides public good, other people better off, and yet they could not be charged for this benefit

16. PUBLIC AND COMMON GOODS AND EXTERNALITIES • If one person uses a common good, such as fish in the ocean, other people are worse off, and yet they are not compensated for this loss • Because of these external effects, private decisions about consumption and production can lead to inefficient allocation of resources and public intervention can potentially raise economic welfare

17. PUBLIC AND COMMON GOODS AND EXTERNALITIES • More advanced discussion • Private provision of public goods creates Pareto inefficiency • Leads to insufficient level of a desirable public good • Market failure and externality • Due to non-rivalry, marginal social cost of supplying good to an additional individual is zero • Pareto efficiency occurs when marginal social benefit equals marginal social cost, implying price for usage should be zero

18. PUBLIC AND COMMON GOODS AND EXTERNALITIES • More advanced discussion • But private firm cannot profit by providing pure public good for free • Due to non-rival and non-excludable consumption • Each firm ignores impact of its private contribution to public on other firms and vice versa • No firm accounts for the extra benefit passed on to other firms as each firm increases its contribution to the supply of the public good

19. PUBLIC AND COMMON GOODS AND EXTERNALITIES • More advanced discussion • Externality • Cause of this inefficiency due to externality • Each consumer’s purchase of the public good provides direct benefit not only to the purchasing consumer, but also to every other consumer • Hence, private provision of public good creates situation with externality • Free-rider situation created

20. PUBLIC GOODS AND THE FREE-RIDER PROBLEM • A free-rider is a person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it • Most often associated with public goods • Arises due to non-excludability • Implies that market will provide less of public good than is socially optimal • Misallocates resources away from environmental assets to private goods where conditions of rivalry and exclusive use hold

21. PUBLIC BADS • An undesirable public good • Reduces consumer utility or firm profits • Examples: pollution, noise • Loss suffered by one person from pollution of air, for example, does not reduce loss suffered by another • Public bads are oversupplied

22. MIXED GOODS • Enviornmental Assets as Mixed Goods • Environmental assets which provide both private and public good services are mixed goods • Biodiversity is an example • Species provide public good services in the generation of ecological services that are themselves of value to human society • Species provide private good services of direct economic value in both human consumption and production

23. MIXED GOODS • Characteristics of Mixed Goods • Main characteristic of a mixed good is that consumption of mixed good as private good is is unaffected by consumption of same good as public good • Because of non-rivalrous characteristic when public good • Whereas consumption of mixed good as public good is affected by consumption of same mixed good as a private good • Because of rivalrous nature of private goods

24. MIXED GOODS AND MARKET FAILURE • Characteristics of Mixed Goods • Often overexploitation of the mixed good and underinvestment and under-supply in public good aspect of mixed good • Market only values private good uses

25. MIXED GOODS • Enviornmental Assets as Mixed Goods • Many ecological services are neither purely rival nor purely exclusive in consumption, and hence are mixed goods • Consumption of such services by one user or group does not diminish their availability to others • Consumption does not preclude consumption by others • In nature of local public good

26. MIXED GOODS • Enviornmental Assets as Mixed Goods • As with many public goods, underinvestment in environmental services or biodiversity in favor of specific populations whose benefits can be captured by individuals or groups

27. MIXED GOODS AND MARKET FAILURE • Biodiversity market failure and external effects due to: • 1. Non-correspondence between property rights and flows of benefits within economy-environmental system • Incomplete specification and allocation of rights, so that some effects of economic activities are not included in market activities

28. MIXED GOODS AND MARKET FAILURE • Biodiversity market failure and external effects due to: • 2. Distortions of market prices due to government policy or strategic market behavior • When market prices do not reflect social opportunity cost, socially sub-optimal decisions

29. MIXED GOODS AND MARKET FAILURE • Biodiversity market failure and external effects due to: • 3. Distribution of income and assets that deepens wedge between individual private and social valuation of many people • Information used in private decisions and discount rates by private individuals is sensitive to market income • Poor able to command less income than rich and thereby express their willingness to pay • Also, strong relationship between income and discount rate for future • Because current consumption is crucial, poor tend to discount future costs of resource at very high rate

30. MIXED GOOD AND MARKET FAILURE Social cost = Private + external cost • Negative Externalities or External Costs Price • Social cost of good • exceeds private cost • Socially optimum • quantity exceeds • privately optimum • quantity • Socially optimum price • exceeds privately • optimum price Social Optimum Supply (private marginal cost) POPTIMUM PMARKET Market Equilibrium External Cost Demand QMARKET Quantity QOPTIMUM

31. MIXED GOOD AND MARKET FAILURE WITHOUT WELFARE CONSEQUENCES • Externality is Pareto irrelevant in this case Social value of external cost S Price • Marginal social and privae • costs diverge over same • range of exploitation. • Social marginal cost curve is • S’FS • Market equil. Is socially • optimal even though private • exploitation imposes external • costs. F S’ Demand S Quantity

32. OPTIMAL EXPLOITATION OF MIXED GOODS Marginal benefit of private good Marginal benefit of public good Q0: Socially optimal exploitation level Q1: Optimal private exploitation level Q0 Q1 Increasing public exploitation Increasing private exploitation

33. OPTIMAL EXPLOITATION OF MIXED GOODS: ONLY PUBLIC GOOD Marginal benefit of private good Marginal benefit of public good Marginal benefits of public good always exceed marginal benefits of private good Q0: Socially optimal exploitation level Q1: Optimal private exploitation level Q0 Q1 Increasing public exploitation Increasing private exploitation