Technology in Work Organizations Chapter 16

1. Technology in Work Organizations Chapter 16

2. Introduction This lecture will: Define 'technology' and look at current trends in the relationship with work organizations Analyze the historical and philosophical contexts of information communications technology (ICT) and work Look at applications of ICT legislation, policy and programs Examine the literature related to skills and practices in the workplace

3. What is Technology? In the context of the workplace, technology is conventionally defined as 'the means by which an organization transforms inputs into outputs, including the techniques and process used to transform labour, knowledge, capital and raw materials into finished goods and services’ (Anderson and Kyprianou, 1994)

4. Technology and the Workplace (1) Woodward’s research linked firm type (organic/mechanistic) to different types of work technology This led to a technologically determinist stance The concept of a post-industrialist ‘knowledge economy’ emerged This entailed a highly skilled specialist workforce (Reich, 1991) The idea of an ICT revolution emerged Some saw positive benefits – new jobs and skills such as software development Others feared redundancies

5. Technology and the Workplace (2) The key technologies of the three industrial revolutions have been steam, electricity and ICT These are general purpose technologies (GPTs) which have emerged from the forces of political and economic struggle The development of ICT is the outcome of complex socio-historical changes accompanying industrialism and also capitalism, rather than just a product However, a contrasting view argues that technological ‘progress’ is arguably not a ‘linear’ or inevitable Of course positive benefits have been seen (empowerment and innovation etc), but conflict has also attended eras of technological progress – for instance the Luddites

6. Historical and Philosophical Contexts of ICT and Work Historically ICT can therefore be perceived as the further stage of socio-historical forces that have resulted in conflict ICT emerged within a few key firms in the University-Industrial-Military Complex Technological choices were selective in a market environment of capitalism Competing ideologies can therefore be said to have informed the development of ICT: Instrumentalist or technocratic approach The substantive approach The constructivist approach The critical approach

7. Instrumentalist or Technocratic Approach Argues that cost limitations influence technology transfer Lends itself to technological determinism Tends to be the source of positive or neutral characterizations of ICT in the workplace Is the dominant and mainstream approach in government, policy sciences and business

8. The Substantive Approach Like the technocratic approach, attributes an autonomous force to technology However, views it as cultural system that orients the world as an object of control This can lead to an anti-technological approach such as that evinced in the writings of Heidegger

9. The Constructivist Approach A contrasting approach which emphasizes how technology is located in human interaction (and construction of reality) The uses of technology are determined in practical contexts at a local level of activation The emphasis is on implementation rather than design

10. The Critical Approach Is related to the issue of democratic advance of citizens in the goals/means of technological evolution (Feenberg, 1991) In this sense, technology could be viewed as linked to a movement towards emancipation Is in conflict with the technocratic position but has some sympathies with the constructivist position (at least methodologically)

11. Applications of ICT Legislation, Policy and Programs Work-based learning interacts with legislative ICT related areas Research and Development (R&D) is central to efforts of leading firms and core capitalist states Interventionist policies are keenest in Scandinavia; a moderate case is Germany and France. Less regulative intervention is found in the US and UK Generally, ICT has conflictual areas in employee/employer negotiation Corporate governance and international collaborative agreements have evolved

12. Regional Examples of ICT Legislation, Policy and Programs: N America In the USA, complex federal and state efforts tend to link with firm collaboration; unions and industrial policy are weaker Canada has greater state intervention including the Sector Skills Councils which assist the private sector in its investment and training goals Ontario in Canada was notable for its Technology Adjustment Program (TARP), linking union/state activities

13. Regional Examples of ICT Legislation, Policy and Programs: Western Europe A case study termed Participation in Technological Change was undertaken in Europe in the early 90s This showed industrial relations regimes were important in the process of technological innovation EU Policies contrast with the USA,placing more value on the dissemination of knowledge and a contrast with free market models ESPRIT was an international research program which tried to organize R&D and workplace innovation in the mid-90s but had mixed success

14. Regional Examples of ICT Legislation, Policy and Program: Scandinavia Historically the 1970s marked a significant point for ICT development in Scandinavia: The Norwegian Environment Act gave workers participation in company assemblies and trade union appointees, reflecting involvement in ICT evolution Sweden followed suit with ‘work democracy’ and various policy frameworks (e.g. UTOPIA program) These Scandinavian cases showed that participation of workers was necessary but insufficient for progressive ICT outcomes (Gartner and Wagner, 1996)

15. Technology Agreements Technology Agreements have two elements: Procedural (such as broad statements on the need for new technologies) Substantive (such as specific statements on job security and re-training) Small and Yasin’s studies focus on the effects of technology agreements in the workplace, including the interaction with unionism

16. ICT and workplace skills • ICT and workplace skills are associated with the introduction of new technologies • This has often coincided with different historical phases in the labour process (eg craft production, Taylorism, Fordism, virtual organization design • Poster (theorist) argues that ICT can limit skill deployment and that the market can be saturated with ICT skills • According to Kelley (1990) the 'least complex' firms are most effective at successful adoption of ICT • However, in terms of learning it has been demonstrated that unions often provides the best chance for achieving effective technological adoption / skill enhancing outcomes.

17. Deskilling/Enskilling The deskilling argument points toward the stark divisions of mental and manual labour and the breaking up of complex tasks into smaller more discrete ones often, though not exclusively, with the aid of new technologies. This type of organizational structure can be seen in the growth of the service sector The enskilling argument sees technology in a more positive way, arguing that unskilled jobs will simply be ‘automated away’ In between the deskilling and enskilling camps are the so-named contingency and institutionalist theorists

18. Adoption Practices and Outcomes Some studies suggest that ICT is activated/reconfigured rather than passively being taken up (Luff et al); other studies emphasise the role of tacit knowledge (Lam, 2002) ICT adoption is also shaped by the industrial relations climate and the dynamics of a specific sector, as well as the struggle by workers for greater participation in the labour process (Sawchuk and Livingstone, 2003) Computer literacy is rooted in communities of practice and such skills outstrip actual demand

19. General conclusions This lecture shows the importance of an analysis of debates relative to legislative and government programs connected with technology development We suggest that technology is a social phenomenon integrating both conflict and consent The ideologies of technological thought show distinct attitudes to the nature and significance of technology in the workplace Evaluation of distinct theoretical attitudes show the lively debate on these issues