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SOME THOUGHTS ON Problems in U.S. Policy During the Era of the Holocaust

SOME THOUGHTS ON Problems in U.S. Policy During the Era of the Holocaust. Peter Black, Senior Historian United States Holocaust Memorial Museum April 28, 2011 Reference Copy. For additional uses please contact the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. INTRODUCTION:. Three Problems:

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SOME THOUGHTS ON Problems in U.S. Policy During the Era of the Holocaust

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  1. SOME THOUGHTS ON Problems in U.S. Policy During the Era of the Holocaust Peter Black, Senior Historian United States Holocaust Memorial Museum April 28, 2011 Reference Copy. For additional uses please contact the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

  2. INTRODUCTION: Three Problems: • Immigration & shelter to refugees • Knowledge of Holocaust • Action to Stop Holocaust

  3. U.S. IMMIGRATION Policy, 1919-1941 • 1924 Immigration Act A. Hostility to Immigrants 1. Hostility to Jews & Catholics 2. Asian entry banned in 1882 3. Africans not permitted to enter

  4. U.S. Immigration Policy, 1919-1941 B. Mistrust of Europe & Europeans 1. Concern about Communism 2. Struggle Between Management & Left-Wing Labor Unions 3. Ceiling Quota, 1929: 151,774 per year 4. 309,782 Germans, Austrians & Czech Jews applied for visas

  5. U.S. Immigration Policy, 1919-1941 II. IMPACT OF DEPRESSION A. Concern about Jobs B. Concern about Communism 1. Sympathies in U.S. with stand of Fascist Italy & Nazi Germany on Communists 2. Willingness to buy Nazi & Fascist propaganda on getting out of Depression a. Class reconcilation—workers should know their place b. Depression broke left-wing labor movement

  6. U.S. Immigration Policy, 1919-1941 C. LPC Clause of 1917 Immigration Act 1. Likely to Become Public Charge Clause a. directed at persons lacking mental & physical skills for employment b. Possible interpretation: unable to get a job under current market conditions 2. September 1930—President Hoover announced application of this interpretation to restrict inflow of immigrants

  7. U.S. Immigration Policy, 1919-1941 D. Attitude toward minorities 1. Anti-Semitism a. 1920: 3,2 Million Jews in U.S. 1930: 4.4 Million (out of 122,775,000, just under 3.6% of population) b. 2,885,000 had immigrated, 1881-1930 (87% from Eastern Europe) c. Link with Communism—Red Scare & Labor Unrest of 1918-1919 d. Sons of 19th Century immigrants entering Protestant society

  8. U.S. Immigration Policy, 1919-1941 2. Hostility & indifference to Afro- Americans a. 1920s: Jim Crow legislation still being passed b. 1937-defeat of Law Requiring Federal authorities to investigate race murders when locals would not investigate

  9. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE U.S. 1914-1937 • 1914: 1,218,000 (Jews: 138,051—11.33%) • 1921: 119,036 Jewish immigrants • 1922: 54,000 Jewish immigrants • 1923: 50,000 Jewish immigrants • 1924: 707,000 • 1925: 10,267 Jewish immigrants • 1926: 11,483 Jewish immigrants • 1927: 11,629 Jewish immigrants • 1928: 307,000 (Jews: 11,639--3.79%) • 1929: 279,678 (Jews: 12,479--4.46%) • 1930: 241,700 (Jews: 11,526--4.77%) • 1931: 97,139 (Jews: 5,692—5.86%) • 1932: 36,576 (Jews: 2,755—7.53%) • 1933: 23,068 (Jews: 2,372—10.3%) • 1934: 29,470 (Jews: 4,134—14.3%) • 1935: 34,956 (Jews: 4,837—13.8%) • 1936: 36,329 (Jews: 6,252—17.2%) • 1937: 50,244 (Jews: 11,352—22.6%) • 1933-1937: 28,947 (16.62% of immigrants)

  10. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE U.S. 1914-1937 • 1938: 19,736 Jews (30% of immigrants) • 1939: 43,450 (52.35% of all immigrants) • 1940: 36,945 (52.21% of all immigrants) • 1941: 23,737 (45.85% of all immigrants) 1938-1941: 123,868 (45.3% of immigrants)

  11. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE U.S. 1938-1945 1939-1945: appr. 140,000 Jewish immigrants 1942-1945: appr. 35,868

  12. POST-WAR JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO U.S. • 1946: 15,535 Jewish immigrants • 1947: 25,885 Jewish immigrants • 1948: 12,300 Jewish immigrants • 1948-1952: appro. 80,000 Jewish immigrants under DP Act Total, 1946-1952: 133,720

  13. U.S. Immigration Policy, 1919-1941 IV. Weakness of Roosevelt administration A. 1938/1942 elections: Republicans win B. 1937—Court Packing C. 1940—Roosevelt, 3rd Term D. Enemy Aliens after 1941 E. U.S. Self-image: A world power?

  14. U.S. Immigration Policy, 1919-1941 V. Wagner-Rogers Bill A. Feb 1939, rejection of Wagner-Rogers bill to bring in 20,000 children above quota

  15. U.S. IMMIGRATION POLICY VI. S.S. ST. LOUIS A. 938 passengers (one died en route) 1. 743 had applied for U.S. visas 2. 22 had U.S. visas & could disembark 3. 6 more could legally disembark

  16. Emigration Passengers aboard the "St. Louis." These refugees from Nazi Germany were forced to return to Europe after both Cuba and the U.S. denied them entry. May or June 1939.

  17. U.S. Immigration Policy, 1919-1941 VI. S.S. ST. LOUIS—June 1939 B. 908 returned to Europe (JDC Negotiations) 1. 1 non-refugee returned to Hungary 2. 288 to Great Britain 3. 620 returned to continent (254 died) a. Belgium: 214 (died: 84) b. Holland: 181 (died: 84) c. France: 224 (died: 86) C. 87 emigrated before May 1940 D. 278 survived the Holocaust in Europe

  18. U.S. Immigration Policy, 1919-1941 VII. How Many Jews in Danger? A. 213,000 Jews left Germany in May 1939.B. 94,601 Jews left in Austria in May 1939 C.Increasing concern that general public believed that arrival of more Jews would increase pressure for U.S. involvement in war, 1939-1941. D. Polish & Romanian Jews seeking religious freedom & economic opportunity

  19. POLLING DATA: ATTITUDES TOWARDS JEWS IN THE U.S.Source: Charles H. Stember et al., Jews in the Mind of America (New York: Basic Books, 1966).

  20. IS PREJUDICE AGAINST Jews Increasing or Decreasing in U.S.?

  21. Are Jews as patriotic, more patriotic, or less patriotic than other U.S. citizens? 3/38-10/41: Less patriotic: Between 25% & 31% More patriotic: Average of 5% As patriotic: Average of 67%

  22. Do Jews have too much power in the United States?

  23. What is your attitude to allowing German, Austrian, & other political refugees to come into U.S. (July 1938) • “encourage them to come even if we have to raise immigration quotas” 4.9% • “we should allow them to come but not raise immigration quotas” 18.2% • “with conditions as they are, we should try to keep them out” 67.4% • “don’t know” 9.5%

  24. March 1938 Yes: 17% No: 75% Don’t Know: 8% November 1938 Yes: 21% No: 71% Don’t Know: 8% When asked whether the U.S. government should permit a “larger number of Jewish exiles to come to the United States”:

  25. Gallop Poll, January 1939: “It has been proposed that the government permit 10,000 refugee children from Germany to be brought into this country and taken care of in American homes. Do you favor this plan?” • Supported: 26% • Opposed: 66% • No opinion: 8% When refugees were specifically identified as Jewish: Supported: 30% Opposed: 61% No opinion: 9%

  26. If you were a member of the Congress would you vote “yes” or “no” on a bill to open the doors of the U.S. to a larger number of refugees than now admitted under our immigration quotas? Vote for: 8.7% Vote against: 83.0% Don’t know: 8.3%

  27. In your opinion, what nationality, religious, or social groups in this country [U.S.] are a menace to America? Choices: “Jews, Negroes, Catholics, Germans, Japanese.”

  28. U.S. Knowledge of holocaust I. Allies “Knew Early and Did Nothing about the Holocaust” When did the Allies Know? A. What was known? Need to define. 1. Germany a. Persecution of Minorities (1933) b. Violation of Civil Rights, including murder (1933) i. Response of Black & White-Owned Newspapers in the South (1934) c. Sporadic Violence against Jews (1933, 1935,1937- 1938) d. Kristallnacht Violence (91 killed) (1938)

  29. U.S. Knowledge of holocaust 2. Poland a. Indiscriminate murder of civilians (Poland, 1939) b. Systematic Persecution & Physical violence against Jews (1939-1940) c. Systematic mass murder of civilians (Polish elite, 1940) 3. USSR a. Soviet Jews, Communists & others, 1941 b. plan to eliminate European Jews (August 1942—confirmed Nov 1942)

  30. U.S. Knowledge of holocaust II. When was military intervention possible? What kind of intervention? When was political intervention possible? A. Prioritization of European Theater B. Allied statement of Dec 17, 1942 C. Development of rescue infrastructure: “a statecraft of carefully calibrated compassion.”

  31. Report of H. Höfle, 1.43

  32. U.S. Rescue Operations II. When was military intervention possible? What kind of intervention? D. Bermuda Conference on Refugees, Apr 1943 1. strong opposition in U.S. & Great Britain to accepting large numbers of refugees. 2. unwillingness to emphasize Jews specifically as priority refugees, for fear of stirring ethnic hatred at home and undermining will of others to fight for the Jews.

  33. U.S. RESCUE OPERATIONS 3. Achievements: a. reactivation of Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees b. Recommendation to establish refugee camp in North Africa for refugees trapped in Spain E.U.S. & U.K. never willing to relax immigration quotas. 1. U.S. & British leery about sending funds into Axis controlled Europe, where they could be used to prolong the war 2. Soviets paranoid about Western intentions

  34. U.S. RESCUE OPERATIONS F. War Refugee Board (Jan. 1944) too late; 1. impetus: failure of Treasury Department officials to overcome British objections to sending funds for relief of Romanian Jews returning from Transnistria in late fall 1943, when the Antonescu regime was willing to permit the funds. 2. Significant success in Hungary a. financing activity of Wallenberg & others in Budapest. b. assisting Red Cross in removing prisoners from concentration camps

  35. U.S. RESCUE OPERATIONS? • BOMBING AUSCHWITZ A. Questions 1. Militarily Feasible? 2. Saved Lives? 3. PR Effect? B. Morse-Wyman Thesis 1. Roosevelt Administration at best indifferent, at worst hostile to Jews. 2. Argument that winning war would save more people an excuse C. McGovern’s wish that he had orders to bomb Auschwitz when he flew over in Dec. 1944

  36. U.S. RESCUE OPERATIONS? D. Six Chronologies

  37. 1. CHRONOLOGY: ALLIED BOMBING CAPACITY Sep 30, 1943:Allies capture Foggia in southern Italy Spring 1944:Allies could first hit targets in Silesia from airstrips at Foggia, but only with RAF Mosquitoes & USAF B-25 medium bombers—problematic May 31, 1944:First aerial photograph of Auschwitz- Birkenau (April 14 for Auschwitz I). July 1944:B-17, B-24 bombing missions with escorts possible for Silesia. July 18, 1944:Monowitz designated a target Aug 20, 1944:First bombing of Monowitz Issue of accuracy of bombing—Buchenwald, 7/7/44

  38. Aerial view of Auschwitz-Birkenau Concentration Camp. Upper left corner, bombs from US planes are visible. Auschwitz, Poland, September 1944.

  39. 2. CHRONOLOGY: DEPORTATION OF HUNGARIAN JEWS March 19, 1944:Germans occupy Hungary April 6-7, 1944: Germans demand 100,000 laborers April 13, 1944:Hungarians agree to deport 100,000 Jews Apr 28-9, 1944:Two trains containing political arrestees\ go from Kistacsa to Auschwitz May 15-July 9:Deportations from provinces (440,000) July 6, 1944:Hungarian government halts deportations July 9, 1944: Last deportation train leaves for Auschwitz July 1944:15,000 Jews deported, Austrian border July 15, 24, Aug 2:3 transports to Auschwitz: 4,026 Jews Oct-Nov, 1944: footmarches to Austrian border resume

  40. 3. CHRONOLOGY: KNOWLEDGE OF AUSCHWITZ April 7, 1944:Vrba-Wetzler escape Auschwitz April 27, 1944:Auschwitz report written in Slovakia in German language, as Vrba & Wetzler reconstruct data Late Apr-May:report reaches Budapest, is translated into Hungarian & other languages May, 1944:report sent to Jewish representatives in Switzerland, Istanbul, & London--& Papal Nuncio in Bratislava May 1944:Jewish groups demand bombing of gas chambers June 19, 1944:Diplomat in Romanian embassy in Bern disseminates report widely in Switzerland. July 7, 1944: Horthy announces halt of deportations July, 1944: War Refugee Board gets Vrba report. Aug 9, 1944: War Refugee Board writes McCloy suggesting bombing of gas chambers as inducement to halt killing August 14, 1944:McCloy letter, “decisive operations”

  41. 4. CHRONOLOGY: U.S. DIPLOMATIC RESPONSE March 7, 1944:U.S. Govt warns Hungarian govt against taking harsher measures against Jews Mar 24, 1944:Roosevelt warns the Horthy Govt. June 12, 1944:Roosevelt statement to Congress: condemns continued annihilation of European Jews Jun 12-13, 1944:Senate debate & speech of Hull had impact in Hungarian Foreign Ministry Jun 22, 26, 1944:threat of Roosevelt & House Foreign Affairs Committee to retaliate with force if atrocities not stopped. July 2, 1944:Budapest bombed by USAF; leaflets dropped, repeating warning July 6, 1944:Horthy orders deportations halted July 9, 1944:Last deportation train leaves

  42. 5.CHRONOLOGY: MILITARY ADVANCES March 19, 1944:Germany occupies Hungary April 15, 1944:Germany stabilizes Eastern Front in East Galicia, North Bucovina & East Belarus June 4, 1944:Allies capture Rome June 6, 1944:Allies land in France, on Normandy Coast June 22, 1944:Soviet offensive in Belarus begins July 22, 1944:Having destroyed Army Group Center, Soviets enter eastern Poland July 25, 1944:Allies break out of Normandy beachhead August 1, 1944:Soviets reach Vistula River, eastern suburbs of Warsaw; Warsaw uprising begins August 23, 1944:Romania switches sides; Soviets invade Trianon Hungary August 25, 1944:Paris liberated Sep 16, 1944:Allies reach German border

  43. 6.CHRONOLOGY: MILITARY ADVANCES July 1944:130,000 prisoners in Auschwitz complex Jul 12, 1944:51,117 in Birkenau (31,406 women &children) August 1944:135,000 prisoners in Auschwitz complex August 7, 1944:19,115 male prisoners in Birkenau August 21, 1944: 58,658 prisoners in Birkenau (39,234 women & children) +30,000 Hungarian Jews in transit camp October 2, 1944:26,230 female prisoners in Birkenau 17,202 Jewish Women in “Mexico” Oct 14, 1944: 100,000 prisoners in Auschwitz complex Nov 27, 1944: 14,206 Jewish women in Birkenau January 4, 1945: 11,713 Jewish women & children in Birkenau women’s camp Jan 17, 1945:67,000 prisoners in Auschwitz complex (15,058 in Birkenau).

  44. In Auschwitz Barracks, Auschwitz-Birkenau, Poland, January 29, 1945

  45. PERSONS MURDERED IN GAS CHAMBERS IN AUSCHWITZ-BIRKENAU, JUL 15-NOV 25, 1944

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